1. Following the process of modernization, a trend toward greater joint decision-making is occurring for rural couples. 2. Although increasingly made jointly, agricultural decisions are generally by husbands. 3. Farm couples are moving toward more joint agricultural and family life decisions. 4. Farm and nonfarm couples’ domestic work decisions continue to be made jointly.

1. Changes in Family, Domestic, and
Agricultural Joint Decision-
Making among Rural Korean
Couples: A Longitudinal Study
Duk-Byeong Park
Department of Community Development, Kongju National University, Korea
and
Gary A. Goreham
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, North Dakota State University
Rural Sociological Society annual meeting
July 31-August 3, 2014
New Orleans, LA

2. South Korea
Modernization. Industrialization.
Urbanization. Economic development.
• Post WW2 (1948). Kim Il-Sung established communist regime in the north;
Syngman Rhee established capitalist regime in the south.
• Korean War (1950-1953).
• Rapid economic growth (1960s). Pres. Park Chung Hee.
• Democratic elections, freedom of press, more human rights (1987).
• Growing population: 47,470,970 (2000); 50,219,669 (2013).
• Declining rural population: high 19,300,260, 67.6% (1965); low 8,362,474, 16.8%
(2011).
• Decreasing crude birth rate: 15.1 (2000); 8.4 (2012).
• Increasing GDP per capita: $17,990 (2004); $23,893 (2014, constant 2000 USD).
• Increase in female farmers: 47.8% (2000): 59.5% (2009) (MAF 2009).

3. Korean retail market, 1960s
Korean retail market, 2014
Photos: Ed Adams and Gary Goreham.

4. Building construction, 1960s
Building construction, 2014

5. Rice planting, 1960s
Rice planting, 2014

6. • South Korean gender-based division of family life tasks is
changing.
• Rural families increasingly rely on wives’ labor to manage
farms (Anthopoulou 2010; Bokemeier & Garkovich 1987; Damisa & Yohanna 2007).
• Rural women’s labor participation in farming doubled from
28% in 1970 to 52% in 2006 (Kang 2008).
• Rural women’s labor force participation and hourly earnings
were higher than their husbands in 2005 (Statistics Korea 2005).
• Women farmers are more involved in decision-making; they
expanded the areas in which they make decisions (Choi 2001).
Rural Couples’ Decision-Making

7. Research Questions
• How has the gender-based division of family life tasks
changed in rural Korea over the past decade?
• How has joint decision-making changed for rural farm
couples? For rural nonfarm couples?
• Do rural couples make decisions differently based on the
type or dimension of family life?

8. Relative Resource Theory
• Spouses with more socio-economic resources may
leverage those resources when delegating domestic work.
• The differential in resources between husbands and wives
leads to inequality in family gender roles (Kamo 1988).
Gender Role Theory
• Men and women engage in different work activities with
different perceived value.
• The work in which women engage, whether inside and
outside the home, may be valued less than the work in
which men engage (Deseran and Simpkins 1991).

9. H1: Both rural farm and nonfarm couples engage in increasing
amounts of joint decision-making.
H2: The rate of increase in joint decision-making for rural farm
couples is substantial; less so for nonfarm couples.
H2a: Increases in joint decision-making for farm couples
are expected particularly in agricultural work and family
life given the increase in wives’ on- and off-farm labor
participation.
H3: Given the traditional nature of rural households, couples’
joint decision-making in domestic work has not increased
significantly.

10. Research Methods
• “Survey on the Rural Living Indicators” conducted by the
Rural Development Administration in Korea; longitudinal
panel of rural couples; November 2000, 2005, and 2009.
• Cluster sampling: 10 households selected by stratified
sampling from 187 community districts out of 12
enumeration districts. Sample of 1,870 rural households.
• N=1,409 (2000); 1,492 (2005); 1,564 (2009).

11. 2000 2005 2009
Region Eup (town or village)
Myen (remote rural village)
34.7
65.3
37.6
62.4
37.6
62.4
Farm/Nonfarm Farm households
Nonfarm households
68.0
32.0
77.2
22.8
73.4
26.6
Age Under 29
30-39
40-49
50-59
Over 60
12.9
19.1
19.8
28.9
19.3
7.9
18.8
20.1
28.8
24.4
4.9
16.3
21.7
27.5
29.7
Occupation Agriculture
Other
49.0
51.0
74.0
26.0
61.0
39.0
Family type One person
One generation
Two generation
Three or more generations
14.7
31.0
38.8
15.5
15.4
33.5
35.0
16.1
15.8
36.9
32.9
14.4
Demographic Profile of the Participants (in %; N=1,870)

12. 12 indicators of joint-decision in 3 clusters
Agricultural work variables:
1. Buying and selling land and house
2. Selling farm products
3. Money management
Family life variables:
4. Household expenses
5. Choosing TV channels
6. Managing children’s education
7. Caring for children
8. Deciding on donations
9. Associating with relatives
Domestic work variables:
10. Cooking and dishwashing
11. Laundry
12. Cleaning house
Scale:
1=fully husband
2=generally husband
3=together
4=generally wife
5=fully wife

13. Rural Farm and Nonfarm Couples’ Joint Decision-Making,
Comparing 2000, 2005, and 2009
1=fully husband, 2=generally husband, 3=together, 4=generally wife, 5=fully wife

14. Agricultural Work
Variable
Type of
household Year N Mean SD F
Buying and selling land
and house
Farm
household
2000a
1,037 2.1 0.953
27.910***
2005b
1,150 2.32 0.862
2009b
1,141 2.38 0.867
Nonfarm
household
2000a
341 2.35 0.904
2.179
2005a
246 2.48 0.817
2009a
315 2.48 0.908
Selling farm products
Farm
household
2000a
1,018 2.36 1.024
24.877***
2005b
1,109 2.6 0.903
2009b
1,115 2.61 0.871
Nonfarm
household
2000a
83 2.72 0.852
0.722
2005a
84 2.75 0.863
2009a
96 2.86 0.936
Money management
Farm
household
2000a
1,034 1.47 0.736
3.552*
2005ab
1,143 1.51 0.716
2009 b
1,138 1.55 0.746
Nonfarm
household
2000a
365 1.87 0.843
0.576
2005 a
257 1.82 0.81
2009 a
314 1.8 0.812
Rural Couples’ Decision-making Scores for Agricultural Work,
Comparing 2000, 2005, and 2009
*** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05; a, b, c: Duncan post-hoc test

15. Rural Couples’ Decision-making Scores for Family Life,
Comparing 2000, 2005, and 2009
Family Life
Variable
Type of household
Year N Mean SD F
Household
expense
Farm household
2000a
1,043 2.78 1.045
18.407***
2005b
1,152 2.97 0.883
2009b
1,137 3 0.853
Nonfarm
household
2000a
368 3.12 1.038
0.198
2005a
255 3.17 0.869
2009a
312 3.15 0.898
Choosing TV
channel
Farm household
2000a
1,043 2.7 1.026
9.942***
2005a
1,151 2.73 0.899
2009b
1,140 2.87 0.881
Nonfarm
household
2000a
368 2.84 0.954
0.657
2005a
258 2.76 0.886
2009a
315 2.79 0.831
Managing
children’s
education
Farm household
2000a
1,000 2.87 0.858
8.672***
2005b
1,117 2.98 0.701
2009b
1,120 2.99 0.66
Nonfarm
household
2000a
353 3.07 0.821
0.028
2005a
246 3.09 0.703
2009a
307 3.07 0.694

16. Family Life Variable
Type of
household Year N Mean SD F
Caring for children
Farm
household
2000a
946 2.66 0.517
3.606*
2005b
1,044 2.6 0.517
2009 1,061 2.62 0.506
Nonfarm
household
2000a
348 2.73 0.456
7.315**
2005a
242 2.59 0.517
2009a
286 2.61 0.53
Deciding donations
Farm
household
2000a
1,049 2.21 0.951
56.783***
2005b
1,154 2.49 0.847
2009c
1,145 2.59 0.778
Nonfarm
household
2000a
369 2.6 0.957
2.435
2005a
256 2.61 0.804
2009a
316 2.73 0.824
Associating with
relatives
Farm
household
2000a
1,032 1.73 0.601
25.867***
2005b
1,134 1.8 0.56
2009c
1,126 1.91 0.573
Nonfarm
household
2000 367 1.9 0.63
3.174*
2005a
252 1.8 0.606
2009b
309 1.93 0.61

17. Domestic Work
Variable
Type of household
Year N Mean SD F
Cooking and
dishwashing
Farm household
2000a
1,029 2.94 0.272
0.987
2005a
1,141 2.92 0.309
2009a
1,138 2.93 0.28
Nonfarm household
2000a
370 2.92 0.283
1.561
2005a
257 2.88 0.365
2009a
311 2.88 0.358
Laundry work
Farm household
2000a
1,024 2.94 0.278
0.151
2005a
1,137 2.93 0.293
2009a
1,132 2.93 0.287
Nonfarm household
2000a
368 2.94 0.264
2.409
2005b
258 2.88 0.381
2009 311 2.91 0.338
Cleaning house
Farm household
2000a
1,017 2.84 0.404
6.857**
2005b
1,129 2.78 0.472
2009b
1,126 2.79 0.448
Nonfarm
household
2000a
368 2.86 0.388
4.501*
2005a
257 2.76 0.47
2009a
304 2.77 0.487
Rural Couples’ Decision-making Scores for Domestic
Work, Comparing 2000, 2005, and 2009

18. Summary
1. Following the process of modernization, a trend toward
greater joint decision-making is occurring for rural couples.
2. Although increasingly made jointly, agricultural decisions
are generally by husbands.
3. Farm couples are moving toward more joint agricultural and
family life decisions.
4. Farm and nonfarm couples’ domestic work decisions
continue to be made jointly.

19. 1. Enhancing women’s power in joint decision can benefit the
economic and social well-being of rural families.
2. Rural women’s participation in joint decision-making may empower
them by improving their legal and economic status.
3. Educational programs for women and husbands may be necessary
as family farming evolves. These programs could assist rural
couples to share decision-making power in agriculture, family life,
and domestic work.
4. Empowering rural women economically and politically will transform
them from playing invisible, subordinate roles to leadership and
active community members.
5. Rural women will be positioned to use their untapped abilities for
local development to benefit their families and communities.
Implications

20. References
Anthopoulou, T. 2010. “Rural women in local agrofood production: between entrepreneurial initiatives
and family strategies: a case study in Greece.” Journal of Rural Studies 26: 394-403.
Bokemeier, J. & L. Garkovich. 1987. “Assessing the influence of farm women’s self-identity on task
allocation and decision making.” Rural Sociology 52(1): 13-36.
Choi, K. 2001. “Sex-role attitude, conjugal status level and status satisfaction of married women living
in Korean rural area.” Journal of Korean Home Management Association 19(3): 53-72.
Damisa, M. & M. Yohanna. 2007. “Role of rural women in farm management decision making process:
ordered Probit analysis.” World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 3(4): 543-546.
Deseran, F. & N. Simpkins. 1991. “Women’s off-farm work and gender stratification.” Journal of Rural
Studies 7(1-2): 91-97.
Kamo, Y. 1988. “Determinants of household division of labor: resources, power, and ideology.” Journal
of Family Issues 9(2): 177-200.
Kang, H. 2008. “Factors affect women farmers’ economic activities.” Journal of Rural Development
31(4): 69-81
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). 2009. Statistics on Women Farmers. Seoul, Korea.