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Ch 18
1.
CHAPTER 18: THE
CARDIO- VASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
2.
Objectives © 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. I. Systemic vs. Pulmonary circuit II. Heart Anatomy: Chambers and Valves III. Blood Flow Through the Heart IV. Cardiac Conduction System V. Cardiac Cycle VI. Fetal Heart Defects
3.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits • The heart is a transport system comprised of two side-by-side pumps – Right side receives oxygen-poor blood from tissues • Pumps to lungs to get rid of CO2, pick up O2, via pulmonary (lung) circuit – Left side receives oxygenated blood from lungs • Pumps to body tissues via systemic circuit
4.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits • Receiving chambers of heart: – Right atrium • Receives blood returning from systemic circuit – Left atrium • Receives blood returning from pulmonary circuit
5.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits • Pumping chambers of heart: – Right ventricle • Pumps blood through pulmonary circuit – Left ventricle • Pumps blood through systemic circuit
6.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Capillary beds of lungs where gas exchange occurs Pulmonary Circuit Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Aorta and branches Venae cavae Left atrium Left ventricleRight atrium Right ventricle Heart Systemic Circuit Oxygen-rich, CO2-poor blood Oxygen-poor, CO2-rich blood Capillary beds of all body tissues where gas exchange occurs Figure 18.1 The systemic and pulmonary circuits.
7.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7ejcLxKW8c http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QXckE_DlFAM Heart Anatomy • Approximately size of fist • Location: – In mediastinum between second rib and fifth intercostal space – On superior surface of diaphragm – Two-thirds of heart to left of midsternal line – Anterior to vertebral column, posterior to sternum PLAYPLAY
8.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Anatomy • Base (posterior surface) leans toward right shoulder • Apex points toward left hip • Apical impulse palpated between fifth and sixth ribs, just below left nipple
9.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.2a Location of the heart in the mediastinum. Midsternal line 2nd rib Diaphragm Sternum Location of apical impulse
10.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.2b Location of the heart in the mediastinum. Mediastinum Heart Right lung Body of T7 vertebra Posterior
11.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.2c Location of the heart in the mediastinum. Superior vena cava Pulmonary trunk Diaphragm Aorta Parietal pleura (cut) Left lung Pericardium (cut) Apex of heart
12.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Coverings of the Heart: Pericardium • Double-walled sac • Superficial fibrous pericardium – Protects, anchors to surrounding structures, and prevents overfilling
13.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Pericardium • Deep two-layered serous pericardium – recall the parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium? – Parietal layer lines internal surface of fibrous pericardium – Visceral layer (epicardium) on external surface of heart – The two layers are separated by the fluid- filled pericardial cavity – Serous fluid decreases friction
14.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.3 The pericardial layers and layers of the heart wall. Pericardium Myocardium Pulmonary trunk Fibrous pericardium Parietal layer of serous pericardium Pericardial cavity Epicardium (visceral layer of serous pericardium) Myocardium Endocardium Heart chamber Heart wall
15.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance • Pericarditis – Inflammation of pericardium – Roughens membrane surfaces pericardial friction rub (creaking sound) heard with stethoscope – Cardiac tamponade • Excess fluid builds up in the pericardial cavity and sometimes compresses heart, causing limited pumping ability
16.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Layers of the Heart Wall • Three layers of heart wall: – Epicardium – Myocardium – Endocardium • Heart wall is richly vascularized • Epicardium – Visceral layer of serous pericardium
17.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Layers of the Heart Wall • Myocardium - ‘muscle heart’ – 2nd layer – Spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells – Cardiac skeleton: crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue • Anchors cardiac muscle fibers • Supports great vessels and valves • Limits spread of action potentials to specific paths as the connective tissue is not electrically excitable. • Links all parts of the heart together
18.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Layers of the Heart Wall Endocardium – ‘inside the heart’ – 3rd layer • continuous with endothelial lining of blood vessels – Glistening white sheet of endothelium that rests on a thin connective tissue layer – Lines heart chambers; covers cardiac skeleton of valves
19.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.3 The pericardial layers and layers of the heart wall. Pericardium Myocardium Pulmonary trunk Fibrous pericardium Parietal layer of serous pericardium Pericardial cavity Epicardium (visceral layer of serous pericardium) Myocardium Endocardium Heart chamber Heart wall
20.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.4 The circular and spiral arrangement of cardiac muscle bundles in the myocardium of the heart. Cardiac muscle bundles
21.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chambers • Four chambers: – Two superior atria – Two inferior ventricles • Interatrial septum – separates atria – Fossa ovalis – remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart • Interventricular septum – separates ventricles
22.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.5e Gross anatomy of the heart. Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Pulmonary trunk Right atrium Right pulmonary veins Fossa ovalis Pectinate muscles Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Chordae tendineae Trabeculae carneae Inferior vena cava Aorta Left pulmonary artery Left atrium Left pulmonary veins Mitral (bicuspid) valve Aortic valve Pulmonary valve Left ventricle Papillary muscle Interventricular septum Epicardium Myocardium Endocardium Frontal section
23.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chambers and Associated Great Vessels • Coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove) – Encircles junction of atria and ventricles • Anterior interventricular sulcus – Anterior position of interventricular septum • Posterior interventricular sulcus – Landmark on posteroinferior surface
24.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atria: The Receiving Chambers • Auricles – Appendages that increase atrial volume • Right atrium – Pectinate muscles – Posterior and anterior regions separated by crista terminalis • Left atrium – Pectinate muscles only in auricles
25.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atria: The Receiving Chambers • Small, thin-walled • Contribute little to propulsion of blood • Three veins empty into right atrium: – Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus – • Four pulmonary veins empty into left atrium • Which chamber receives deoxygenated blood?
26.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ventricles: The Discharging Chambers • Most of the volume of heart • Right ventricle - most of anterior surface • Left ventricle – posteroinferior surface • Trabeculae carneae – irregular ridges of muscle on walls • Papillary muscles – anchor chordae tendineae
27.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ventricles: The Discharging Chambers • Thicker walls than atria • Actual pumps of heart • Right ventricle – Pumps blood into pulmonary trunk • Left ventricle – Pumps blood into aorta (largest artery in body)
28.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.5b Gross anatomy of the heart. Brachiocephalic trunk Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Ascending aorta Pulmonary trunk Right pulmonary veins Right atrium Right coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Anterior cardiac vein Right ventricle Right marginal artery Small cardiac vein Inferior vena cava Left common carotid artery Left subclavian artery Aortic arch Ligamentum arteriosum Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary veins Auricle of left atrium Circumflex artery Left coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Left ventricle Great cardiac vein Anterior interventricular artery (in anterior interventricular sulcus) Apex Anterior view
29.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.5a Gross anatomy of the heart. Aortic arch (fat covered) Pulmonary trunk Auricle of right atrium Auricle of left atrium Anterior interventricular artery Right ventricle Apex of heart (left ventricle) Anterior aspect (pericardium removed)
30.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.5f Gross anatomy of the heart. Photograph; view similar to (e) Superior vena cava Ascending aorta (cut open) Pulmonary trunk Aortic valve Pulmonary valve Interventricular septum (cut) Left ventricle Papillary muscles Right ventricle anterior wall (retracted) Trabeculae carneae Opening to right atrium Chordae tendineae Right ventricle
31.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Valves • Ensure unidirectional blood flow through heart • Open and close in response to pressure changes • Two atrioventricular (AV) valves – Prevent backflow into atria when ventricles contract – Tricuspid valve (right AV valve) – Mitral valve (left AV valve, bicuspid valve) – Chordae tendineae anchor cusps to papillary muscles • Hold valve flaps in closed position
32.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. 1 2 3 Blood returning to the heart fills atria, pressing against the AV valves. The increased pressure forces AV valves open. As ventricles fill, AV valve flaps hang limply into ventricles. 1 2 3 Atria contract, forcing additional blood into ventricles. Ventricles contract, forcing blood against AV valve cusps. AV valves close. Papillary muscles contract and chordae tendineae tighten, preventing valve flaps from everting into atria. AV valves open; atrial pressure greater than ventricular pressure AV valves closed; atrial pressure less than ventricular pressure Direction of blood flow Cusp of atrioventricular valve (open) Atrium Chordae tendineae Papillary muscle Atrium Cusps of atrioventricular valve (closed) Blood in ventricle Ventricle Figure 18.7 The atrioventricular (AV) valves.
33.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Valves • Two semilunar (SL) valves – Prevent backflow into ventricles when ventricles relax – Open and close in response to pressure changes – Aortic semilunar valve – Pulmonary semilunar valve
34.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. As ventricles contract and intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up against semilunar valves, forcing them open. As ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows back from arteries, filling the cusps of semilunar valves and forcing them to close. Aorta Pulmonary trunk Semilunar valves open Semilunar valves closed Figure 18.8 The semilunar (SL) valves.
35.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.6a Heart valves. Pulmonary valve Aortic valve Area of cutaway Mitral valve Tricuspid valve Myocardium Mitral (left atrioventricular) valve Tricuspid (right atrioventricular) valve Aortic valve Pulmonary valve Anterior Cardiac skeleton
36.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.6b Heart valves. Pulmonary valve Aortic valve Area of cutaway Mitral valve Tricuspid valve Myocardium Mitral (left atrioventricular) valve Tricuspid (right atrioventricular) valve Aortic valve Pulmonary valve
37.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.6c Heart valves. Pulmonary valve Aortic valve Area of cutaway Mitral valve Tricuspid valve Chordae tendineae attached to tricuspid valve flap Papillary muscle
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.6d Heart valves. Pulmonary valve Aortic valve Area of cutaway Mitral valve Tricuspid valve Opening of inferior vena cava Tricuspid valve Myocardium of right ventricle Papillary muscles Mitral valve Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum Myocardium of left ventricle
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Video Review of
Blood Flow Through the Heart and Heart Anatomy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XaftdE_h60
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance • Two conditions severely weaken heart: – Incompetent or insufficient valve • Blood backflows so heart repumps same blood over and over – Valvular stenosis • Stiff flaps – constrict opening heart must exert more force to pump blood • Valves become stiff due to calcium salt deposits or scar tissue. • Valve replaced with mechanical, animal, or cadaver valve
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart • Pulmonary circuit – Right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle – Right ventricle pulmonary semilunar valve pulmonary trunk pulmonary arteries lungs – Lungs pulmonary veins left atrium
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. PLAYPLAY Animation: Rotatable heart (sectioned) Pathway of Blood Through the Heart • Systemic circuit – Left atrium mitral valve left ventricle – Left ventricle aortic semilunar valve aorta – Aorta systemic circulation
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Both sides of the heart pump at the same time, but let’s follow one spurt of blood all the way through the system. Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Pulmonary Semilunar valveRight ventricle Pulmonary trunk SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary semilunar valve To heart Oxygen-poor blood returns from the body tissues back to the heart. Oxygen-poor blood is carried in two pulmonary arteries to the lungs (pulmonary circuit) to be oxygenated. To lungs Systemic capillaries Pulmonary capillaries To body Oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the body tissues (systemic circuit). Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the four pulmonary veins. To heart Pulmonary veins Left atrium Mitral valve Left ventricle Aorta Aortic semilunar valve Aortic Semilunar valve Mitral valve Aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Four pulmonary veins Oxygen-poor blood Slide 1
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus SVC IVC Coronary sinus Slide 2Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Slide 3Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 4 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 5 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Pulmonary Semilunar valveRight ventricle Pulmonary trunk SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary semilunar valve
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 6 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Pulmonary Semilunar valveRight ventricle Pulmonary trunk SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary semilunar valve Oxygen-poor blood is carried in two pulmonary arteries to the lungs (pulmonary circuit) to be oxygenated. To lungs Pulmonary capillaries
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Pulmonary veins Four pulmonary veins Slide 7Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 8 Pulmonary veins Left atrium Left atrium Four pulmonary veins Blood Flow Through the Heart Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Right ventricle
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 9 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Pulmonary veins Left atrium Mitral valve Left ventricle Mitral valveLeft ventricle Left atrium Four pulmonary veins
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 10 Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood Right ventricle Pulmonary veins Left atrium Mitral valve Left ventricle Aorta Aortic semilunar valve Aortic Semilunar valve Mitral valve Aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Four pulmonary veins
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 11 Blood Flow Through the Heart Systemic capillaries To body Oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the body tissues (systemic circuit). Pulmonary veins Left atrium Mitral valve Left ventricle Aorta Aortic semilunar valve Aortic Semilunar valve Mitral valve Aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Four pulmonary veins Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.9 The heart is a double pump, each side supplying its own circuit. Slide 12 Both sides of the heart pump at the same time, but let’s follow one spurt of blood all the way through the system. Oxygen-rich blood Superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior vena cava (IVC) Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Pulmonary Semilunar valveRight ventricle Pulmonary trunk SVC IVC Coronary sinus Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary semilunar valve To heart Oxygen-poor blood returns from the body tissues back to the heart. Oxygen-poor blood is carried in two pulmonary arteries to the lungs (pulmonary circuit) to be oxygenated. To lungs Systemic capillaries Pulmonary capillaries To body Oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the body tissues (systemic circuit). Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the four pulmonary veins. To heart Pulmonary veins Left atrium Mitral valve Left ventricle Aorta Aortic semilunar valve Aortic Semilunar valve Mitral valve Aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Four pulmonary veins Oxygen-poor blood
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart • Equal volumes of blood pumped to pulmonary and systemic circuits • Pulmonary circuit short, low-pressure circulation • Systemic circuit long, high-friction circulation; encounters 5X more resistance to blood flow than the pulmonary circulation. • Anatomy of ventricles reflects differences – Left ventricle walls 3X thicker than right • Pumps with greater pressure
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.10 Anatomical differences between the right and left ventricles. Right ventricle Interventricular septum Left ventricle
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Coronary Circulation • Functional blood supply to heart muscle itself – Delivered when heart relaxed – Left ventricle receives most blood supply • Arterial supply varies among individuals • Contains many anastomoses (junctions) – Provide additional routes for blood delivery – Cannot compensate for coronary artery occlusion
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Coronary Circulation: Arteries • Arteries arise from base of aorta • Left coronary artery branches anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery – Supplies interventricular septum, anterior ventricular walls, left atrium, and posterior wall of left ventricle • Right coronary artery branches right marginal artery and posterior interventricular artery – Supplies right atrium and most of right ventricle
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Aorta Superior vena cava Anastomosis (junction of vessels) Right atrium Right coronary artery Right ventricle Right marginal artery Posterior interventricular artery Anterior interventricular artery Left ventricle Circumflex artery Left coronary artery Left atrium Pulmonary trunk The major coronary arteries Figure 18.11a Coronary circulation.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Coronary Circulation: Veins • Cardiac veins collect blood from capillary beds • Coronary sinus empties into right atrium; formed by merging cardiac veins – Great cardiac vein of anterior interventricular sulcus – Middle cardiac vein in posterior interventricular sulcus – Small cardiac vein from inferior margin • Several anterior cardiac veins empty directly into right atrium anteriorly
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.11b Coronary circulation. Superior vena cava Anterior cardiac veins Small cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein Coronary sinus Great cardiac vein The major cardiac veins
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.5d Gross anatomy of the heart. Aorta Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary veins Auricle of left atrium Left atrium Great cardiac vein Posterior vein of left ventricle Left ventricle Apex Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Right pulmonary veins Right atrium Inferior vena cava Coronary sinus Right coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Posterior interventricular artery (in posterior interventricular sulcus) Middle cardiac vein Right ventricle Posterior surface view
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalances • Angina pectoris – Thoracic pain caused by fleeting deficiency in blood delivery to myocardium – Cells weakened • Myocardial infarction (heart attack) – Prolonged coronary blockage – Areas of cell death repaired with noncontractile scar tissue
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle • Cardiac muscle cells striated, short, branched, fat, interconnected, 1 (perhaps 2) central nuclei • Connective tissue matrix (endomysium) connects to cardiac skeleton – Contains numerous capillaries • T tubules wide, less numerous; SR simpler than in skeletal muscle • Numerous large mitochondria (25–35% of cell volume)
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.12a Microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle. Nucleus Intercalated discs Cardiac muscle cell Gap junctions Desmosomes
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle • Intercalated discs - junctions between cells - anchor cardiac cells – Desmosomes prevent cells from separating during contraction – Gap junctions allow ions to pass from cell to cell; electrically couple adjacent cells • Allows heart to be functional syncytium – Behaves as single coordinated unit
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.12b Microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle cell Intercalated disc Mitochondrion Nucleus Mitochondrion T tubule Sarcoplasmic reticulum Z disc I band A band I band Nucleus Sarcolemma
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Cardiac Conduction System •
is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the walls of the heart that send signals to the heart muscle causing it to contract. The main components of the cardiac conduction system are the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Electrical Events • Heart depolarizes and contracts without nervous system stimulation – Rhythm can be altered by autonomic nervous system
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Setting the Basic Rhythm • Coordinated heartbeat is a function of – Presence of gap junctions – Intrinsic cardiac conduction system • Network of noncontractile (autorhythmic) cells • Initiate and distribute impulses coordinated depolarization and contraction of heart
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Pacemaker (Autorhythmic) Cells • Have unstable resting membrane potentials (pacemaker potentials or prepotentials) due to opening of slow Na+ channels – Continuously depolarize • At threshold, Ca2+ channels open • Explosive Ca2+ influx produces the rising phase of the action potential • Repolarization results from inactivation of Ca2+ channels and opening of voltage-gated K+ channels
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Action Potential Initiation by Pacemaker Cells • Three parts of action potential: – Pacemaker potential • Repolarization closes K+ channels and opens slow Na+ channels ion imbalance – Depolarization • Ca2+ channels open huge influx rising phase of action potential – Repolarization • K+ channels open efflux of K+
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.14 Pacemaker and action potentials of pacemaker cells in the heart. Slide 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 Membranepotential(mV) +10 0 –10 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 Time (ms) Action potential Threshold Pacemaker potential 1 2 3 Pacemaker potential This slow depolarization is due to both opening of Na+ channels and closing of K+ channels. Notice that the membrane potential is never a flat line. Depolarization The action potential begins when the pacemaker potential reaches threshold. Depolarization is due to Ca2+ influx through Ca2+ channels. Repolarization is due to Ca2+ channels inactivating and K+ channels opening. This allows K+ efflux, which brings the membrane potential back to its most negative voltage.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.14 Pacemaker and action potentials of pacemaker cells in the heart. Slide 2 1 1 +10 0 –10 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 Time (ms) Action potential Threshold Pacemaker potential 1 Pacemaker potential This slow depolarization is due to both opening of Na+ channels and closing of K+ channels. Notice that the membrane potential is never a flat line. Membranepotential(mV)
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.14 Pacemaker and action potentials of pacemaker cells in the heart. Slide 3 1 2 2 1 +10 0 –10 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 Time (ms) Action potential Threshold Pacemaker potential 1 2 Pacemaker potential This slow depolarization is due to both opening of Na+ channels and closing of K+ channels. Notice that the membrane potential is never a flat line. Depolarization The action potential begins when the pacemaker potential reaches threshold. Depolarization is due to Ca2+ influx through Ca2+ channels. Membranepotential(mV)
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.14 Pacemaker and action potentials of pacemaker cells in the heart. Slide 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 Membranepotential(mV) +10 0 –10 –20 –30 –40 –50 –60 –70 Time (ms) Action potential Threshold Pacemaker potential 1 2 3 Pacemaker potential This slow depolarization is due to both opening of Na+ channels and closing of K+ channels. Notice that the membrane potential is never a flat line. Depolarization The action potential begins when the pacemaker potential reaches threshold. Depolarization is due to Ca2+ influx through Ca2+ channels. Repolarization is due to Ca2+ channels inactivating and K+ channels opening. This allows K+ efflux, which brings the membrane potential back to its most negative voltage.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sequence of Excitation • Cardiac pacemaker cells pass impulses, in order, across heart in ~220 ms – Sinoatrial node – Atrioventricular node – Atrioventricular bundle – Right and left bundle branches – Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers)
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation • Sinoatrial (SA) node – Pacemaker of heart in right atrial wall • Depolarizes faster than rest of myocardium – Generates impulses about 75X/minute (sinus rhythm) • Inherent rate of 100X/minute tempered by extrinsic factors • Impulse spreads across atria, and to AV node
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation • Atrioventricular (AV) node – In inferior interatrial septum – Delays impulses approximately 0.1 second • Because fibers are smaller diameter, have fewer gap junctions • Allows atrial contraction prior to ventricular contraction – Inherent rate of 50X/minute in absence of SA node input
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation • Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of His) – In superior interventricular septum – Only electrical connection between atria and ventricles • Atria and ventricles not connected via gap junctions
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation • Right and left bundle branches – Two pathways in interventricular septum – Carry impulses toward apex of heart
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation • Subendocardial conducting network – Complete pathway through interventricular septum into apex and ventricular walls – More elaborate on left side of heart – AV bundle and subendocardial conducting network depolarize 30X/minute in absence of AV node input • Ventricular contraction immediately follows from apex toward atria
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 The impulses pause (0.1 s) at the atrioventricular (AV) node. 2 The atrioventricular (AV) bundle connects the atria to the ventricles. 3 The bundle branches conduct the impulses through the interventricular septum. 4 The subendocardial conducting network depolarizes the contractile cells of both ventricles. 5 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Internodal pathway Slide 1
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Slide 2 Internodal pathway
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 The impulses pause (0.1 s) at the atrioventricular (AV) node. 2 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Slide 3 Internodal pathway
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 The impulses pause (0.1 s) at the atrioventricular (AV) node. 2 The atrioventricular (AV) bundle connects the atria to the ventricles. 3 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Slide 4 Internodal pathway
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 The impulses pause (0.1 s) at the atrioventricular (AV) node. 2 The atrioventricular (AV) bundle connects the atria to the ventricles. 3 The bundle branches conduct the impulses through the interventricular septum. 4 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Slide 5 Internodal pathway
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.15a Intrinsic cardiac conduction system and action potential succession during one heartbeat. The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. 1 The impulses pause (0.1 s) at the atrioventricular (AV) node. 2 The atrioventricular (AV) bundle connects the atria to the ventricles. 3 The bundle branches conduct the impulses through the interventricular septum. 4 The subendocardial conducting network depolarizes the contractile cells of both ventricles. 5 Superior vena cava Right atrium Left atrium Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) Inter- ventricular septum Anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system showing the sequence of electrical excitation Slide 6 Internodal pathway
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Mechanical Events: The Cardiac Cycle • Cardiac cycle – Blood flow through heart during one complete heartbeat: atrial systole and diastole followed by ventricular systole and diastole – Systole—contraction – Diastole—relaxation – Series of pressure and blood volume changes
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • 1. Ventricular filling—takes place in mid- to-late diastole – AV valves are open; pressure low – 80% of blood passively flows into ventricles – Atrial systole occurs, delivering remaining 20% – End diastolic volume (EDV): volume of blood in each ventricle at end of ventricular diastole
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • 2. Ventricular systole – Atria relax; ventricles begin to contract – Rising ventricular pressure closing of AV valves – Isovolumetric contraction phase (all valves are closed) – In ejection phase, ventricular pressure exceeds pressure in large arteries, forcing SL valves open – End systolic volume (ESV): volume of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • 3. Isovolumetric relaxation - early diastole – Ventricles relax; atria relaxed and filling – Backflow of blood in aorta and pulmonary trunk closes SL valves • Causes dicrotic notch (brief rise in aortic pressure as blood rebounds off closed valve) • Ventricles totally closed chambers – When atrial pressure exceeds that in ventricles AV valves open; cycle begins again at step 1
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Electrocardiogram Heart sounds Left heart QRS P T P 1st 2nd Dicrotic notch 120 Aorta Left ventricle Left atriumAtrial systole 80 40 0 Pressure(mmHg) EDV SV ESV 120 50 Ventricular volume(ml) Atrioventricular valves Aortic and pulmonary valves Phase Open Closed Open Closed Open Closed 1 2a 2b 3 1 Left atrium Right atrium Left ventricle Right ventricle Ventricular filling Atrial contraction Isovolumetric contraction phase Ventricular ejection phase Isovolumetric relaxation Ventricular filling Ventricular filling (mid-to-late diastole) Ventricular systole (atria in diastole) Early diastole 1 2a 2b 3 Figure 18.21 Summary of events during the cardiac cycle.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalances • Tachycardia - abnormally fast heart rate (>100 beats/min) – If persistent, may lead to fibrillation • Bradycardia - heart rate slower than 60 beats/min – May result in grossly inadequate blood circulation in nonathletes – May be desirable result of endurance training
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance • Congestive heart failure (CHF) – Progressive condition; CO is so low that blood circulation inadequate to meet tissue needs – Reflects weakened myocardium caused by • Coronary atherosclerosis—clogged arteries • Persistent high blood pressure • Multiple myocardial infarcts • Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance • Pulmonary congestion – Left side fails blood backs up in lungs • Peripheral congestion – Right side fails blood pools in body organs edema • Failure of either side ultimately weakens other • Treat by removing fluid, reducing afterload, increasing contractility
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Developmental Aspects of the Heart • Embryonic heart chambers – Sinus venosus – Atrium – Ventricle – Bulbus cordis
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.24 Development of the human heart. Day 20: Endothelial tubes begin to fuse. 4a 4 3 2 1 Tubular heart Day 22: Heart starts pumping. Arterial end Ventricle Ventricle Venous end Day 24: Heart continues to elongate and starts to bend. Arterial end Atrium Venous end Day 28: Bending continues as ventricle moves caudally and atrium moves cranially. Aorta Superior vena cava Inferior vena cava Ductus arteriosus Pulmonary trunk Foramen ovale Ventricle Day 35: Bending is complete.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Developmental Aspects of the Heart • Fetal heart structures that bypass pulmonary circulation – Foramen ovale connects two atria • Remnant is fossa ovalis in adult – Ductus arteriosus connects pulmonary trunk to aorta • Remnant - ligamentum arteriosum in adult – Close at or shortly after birth
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Developmental Aspects of the Heart • Congenital heart defects – Most common birth defects; treated with surgery – Most are one of two types: • Mixing of oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood, e.g., septal defects, patent ductus arteriosus • Narrowed valves or vessels increased workload on heart, e.g., coarctation of aorta – Tetralogy of Fallot • Both types of disorders present
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 18.25 Three examples of congenital heart defects. Occurs in about 1 in every 500 births Ventricular septal defect. The superior part of the inter-ventricular septum fails to form, allowing blood to mix between the two ventricles. More blood is shunted from left to right because the left ventricle is stronger. Narrowed aorta Occurs in about 1 in every 1500 births Coarctation of the aorta. A part of the aorta is narrowed, increasing the workload of the left ventricle. Occurs in about 1 in every 2000 births Tetralogy of Fallot. Multiple defects (tetra = four): (1) Pulmonary trunk too narrow and pulmonary valve stenosed, resulting in (2) hypertrophied right ventricle; (3) ventricular septal defect; (4) aorta opens from both ventricles.
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Age-Related Changes Affecting the Heart • Sclerosis and thickening of valve flaps • Decline in cardiac reserve • Fibrosis of cardiac muscle • Atherosclerosis
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