Cross cultural communication

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Ms. Rijitha. R
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronic Media
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Culture is a way of thinking and living whereby one picks up a set of attitudes, values, norms
and beliefs that are taught and reinforced by other members in the group. This set of basic
assumptions and solutions to the problems of the world is a shared system that is passed on
from generation to generation to ensure survival. A culture consists of unwritten and written
principles and laws that guide how an individual interacts with the outside world. Members of
a culture can be identified by the fact that they share some similarity. They may be united by
religion, by geography, by race or ethnicity.
Our cultural understanding of the world and everything in it ultimately affects our style of
communication as we start picking up ways of one’s culture at around the same time we start
learning to communicate. Culture influences the words we speak and our behaviour.
Cross cultural communication thus refers to the communication between people who have
differences in any one of the following: styles of working, age, nationality, ethnicity, race,
gender, sexual orientation, etc. Cross cultural communication can also refer to the attempts that
are made to exchange, negotiate and mediate cultural differences by means of language,
gestures and body language. It is how people belonging to different cultures communicate with
each other.
Each individual can practice culture at varying levels. There is the culture of the community
he grows up in, there is work culture at his work place and other cultures to which one becomes
an active participant or slowly withdraws from. An individual is constantly confronted with
the clash between his original culture and the majority culture that he is exposed to daily.
Cultural clashes occur as a result of individuals believing their culture is better than others.
Cross cultural communication has been influenced by a variety of academic disciplines. It is
necessary in order to avoid misunderstandings that can lead to conflicts between individuals or
groups. Cross cultural communication creates a feeling of trust and enables cooperation.The
focus is on providing the right response rather than providing the right message.
When two people of different cultures encounter each other, they not only have different
cultural backgrounds but their systems of turn – talking are also different. Cross cultural
communication will be more effective and easier if both the speakers have knowledge of the
turn taking system being used in the conversation (For example: One person should not
monopolize the conversation or only one person should talk at a time).

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Laray Barna’s Sources of Miscommunication in Cross Cultural Exchanges
1) Assumption of similarities: This refers to our tendency to think how we behave and act is
the universally accepted rule of behavior. When someone differs, we have a negative view of
them
2) Language Differences: Problems occur when there is an inability to understand what the
other is saying because different languages are being spoken. Talking the same language itself
can sometimes lead to discrepancies as some words have different meanings in various
contexts, countries or cultures
3) Nonverbal Misinterpretation: The way we dress, the way we express ourselves through
our body language, eye contact and gestures also communicates something. A simple gesture
like nodding the head is considered to be YES in certain cultures and NO in others
4) Preconceptions and Stereotypes : Stereotypes involves putting people into pre-defined
slots based on our image of how we think they are or should be. It may consist of a set of
characteristics that we assume that all members of a group share. This may be true or may be
false. But stereotypes may lead to wrongful expectations and notions. A preconceived opinion
of another can lead to bias and discrimination
5) Tendency to evaluate : Humans tend to make sense of the behavior and communication of
others by analyzing them from one’s own cultural point of view without taking into
consideration why the other person is behaving or communicating a certain way
6) High anxiety : Sometimes being confronted with a different cultural perspective will create
an anxious state in an individual who does not know how to act or behave and what is
considered to be appropriate (For example: A Japanese man and an American having a business
meeting where both are unsure of the other’s cultural norms)
To reduce the above barriers to cross cultural communication, one can take the effort to develop
one’s listening skills. This will ensure that we start hearing the real meaning of what is being
said instead of understanding at face value. Becoming aware of our perceptions towards others
will ensure that we take steps to not prejudge a person or stereotype them. By accepting people
and their differences and acknowledging that we don’t know everything will make us open up
to people and their differences resulting in us using contextual information for better
understanding. Seeking feedback and taking risks to open up channels of communication and

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being responsible for our feelings and actions will go a long way in ensuring that
miscommunication is mitigated.
SIX KEY BARRIERS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS
1- ETHNOCENTRISM
We all have a natural tendency to look at other cultures through our own lenses. Ethnocentrism
happens when we implicitly believe our way of doing things and seeing things is the right and
only way. As a result, we negatively judge behaviours that don’t conform to our world vision.
We perceive other’s behaviours as odd and improper. Ethnocentrism also creates an “us versus
them” mentality that can be detrimental. In a previous company I worked for, countless times
I’ve heard the French complain about the Americans in an ethnocentric way and vice-versa.
2- STEREOTYPING
It’s also common to rely on oversimplified clichés about people from different cultures. In fact,
there are quite a few cross-cultural trainings in the market that are focused on memorizing
cultural differences and can reinforce stereotyping. Learning about differences can be useful
as a starting point. But individuals are unique; you can never predict a person’s behaviour based
on his or her nationality. When we were moving to the UK, French friends told us, The British
never invite you for dinner, which is a common social activity in France. We happen to have
the loveliest British neighbours who invite us for dinner often.
3- PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
To manage cross-cultural teams successfully, you need to flex your own style. It’s not easy to
go against your natural preferences. People can feel unauthentic and incompetent. I know the
case of a French manager who went to the United States. He found out that his typical French
style of giving feedback, focused on what was “wrong” rather than on what was working well,
was undermining his team’s confidence. He realised what the problem was, but he felt artificial
acting the “American” way. He went back to France as soon as he could.
4- LANGUAGE BARRIERS
All teams have a common language, but when some people are more fluent than others, it
creates social distance between members. In global teams, people who are less fluent in English
tend to withdraw from communication, which means the team may not get all the input it needs.
Understanding what’s said can be challenging if people speak too fast or use too much slang.
This also might have an influence on how people’s competence and performance are perceived.

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I worked for an organisation where non-English native speakers felt that their career
progression opportunities were not the same as for English native speakers.
5- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTANCE
In global virtual teams, people don’t get the chance to interact and build relationships with each
other as in a traditional office environment. And the less you know about people, the less you
share information with them. Collaboration within virtual teams is, therefore, more
challenging. Groups outside of the head office can also feel excluded. On the other hand, head
office group members might think that other colleagues are not contributing. Differences in
time zones also can be challenging. Often if you’re not in the headquarters, you are expected
to cope with meeting timings that are less convenient. I know of a highly talented woman who
left a global senior leadership role because she got tired of having frequent meetings in the
night.
6- CONFLICTING VALUES
Culture is like an iceberg: what you see are the behaviours, and those are influenced by the
invisible values under the water line. Cultural clashes happen when other people’s behaviour
compromises our own values. Often, when you don’t understand or don’t agree with a
behaviour, it means that there are conflicting values under the water line. There is no right or
wrong way of doing things; it’s just a matter of cultural norms. Below, you’ll see a (non-
exhaustive) list of common conflicting cultural values:
Task oriented vs. relationship oriented
In some countries like the US, people view conversations as an opportunity to exchange
information. People get down to business quickly. In Latin American countries, for instance,
conversations are primarily an opportunity to enhance the relationship. I once worked for an
American company where, in meetings, participants barely introduced each other; we got down
to work immediately. Being a Latin American, it took me a while to get used to it.
Direct vs. indirect communication
In countries like Germany, it is a sign of professionalism to speak clearly and leave no room
for misinterpretation. In countries like Korea, people prefer to communicate indirectly. People
approach problems through vague references. The danger here is that a person from a direct
culture may come across as insensitive, while the person from the indirect culture may appear
imprecise.
Open subtle disagreement

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Cultures that place a high value on “face” and group harmony may be averse to confrontation,
like in China. In other cultures, having a “good fight” is a sign of trust, like in the Netherlands.
People from different parts of the world also vary in the amount of emotion they show during
professional conversations. For example, Italians raise their voices, while the British are more
composed.
Informality vs. formality
In some countries, such as Australia, people are generally casual; in others, like Japan, people
tend to be more formal. To informal people, formality might be interpreted as the sign of
stiffness, while informality to formal people might be perceived as a lack of professionalism.
Structured vs. flexible scheduling
All businesses follow timetables, but in some cultures, people strictly adhere to the schedule,
whereas in others, they treat it as a suggestion. For some, “five minutes” could mean half an
hour, and “tomorrow” could mean the next few days. In Brazil, I wouldn’t start a meeting
exactly on time. It feels disrespectful not to wait a bit for the late comers. In the UK, not starting
the meeting on time might be considered disrespectful towards those who made it to the
meeting on time.
Egalitarian vs. hierarchical
Team members from more egalitarian countries, such as Sweden, may be accustomed to
voicing their unfiltered opinions and ideas, while those from more hierarchical cultures tend to
speak up only after more senior colleagues have expressed their views. I ran quite a few audits
in Morocco, and people’s behaviours were totally different, depending on whether their bosses
were in the same room or not.
ROLES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION WITH CULTURE
Nonverbal communication plays many important roles in intercultural situations. As messages
delivered within the verbal channel convey the literal and content meanings of words, the
nonverbal channel is relied upon to carry the undercurrent of identity ties and relational
meaning. Occurring with or without verbal communication, nonverbal cues provide the context
for interpreting and understanding how the verbal message should be understood. As such, they
can create either clarity or confusion. Usually, however, they can create intercultural friction
and misunderstandings for three main reasons. First, a single nonverbal cue can have different
meanings and interpretations in different cultures; second, multiple nonverbal cues are sent

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simultaneously; and third, a high degree of display rules need to be considered, such as
variations in gender, personality, relational distance, socioeconomic status, and the situation.
Nonverbal messages are generally the primary means of conveying emotions, attitudes, and
our relationships with others, and we rely on nonverbal cues to "say" things that are difficult to
vocalize. A quick look away when one attempts to make eye contact with you can be interpreted
in myriad ways, from "I'm too busy" to "I don't want to talk to you" or "I'm embarrassed."
Nonverbal cues are defined as those messages embedded in nonlinguistic and paralinguistic
cues that are expressed through multiple communication channels in a particular social setting.
Nonlinguistic cues can be eye contact, smiles, touch, hand gestures, or silence.
Paralinguistic lies in your voice, and can be speed, volume, tone or pitch. Multiple channels
means that nonverbal cues are sent through multiple channels at once, e.g. eye contact, facial
expressions, and body movement. Sociocultural setting reflects the importance of our cultural
norms and expectations in evaluating appropriateness and inappropriateness of a nonverbal
message.
Forms of nonverbal communication
Researchers have identified numerous forms of nonverbal communication: physical
appearance, paralanguage (vocal cues), facial expressions, kinesics (body movements), haptics
(touch), eye contact, and proxemics (space).
Physical appearance includes body type, height, weight, hair, and skin color. These
characteristics affect our daily communications with others. We also wear clothing, and we
display artifacts, which are ornaments or adornments that themselves communicate. Our
clothing and artifacts mark our unique or co-cultural identity, or the many smaller cultural
groups to which we belong within a larger culture. Whatever you wear or don't wear, this says
something about you.
Paralanguage, or vocal cues, also mark our cultural, ethnic, and gender identity. This is how we
say something, not what we way. Paralanguage includes the following areas: accent (how
words are pronounced together); pitch range (high or low tone); pitch intensity (high or low
carrying of your voice); volume (loud or soft); articulation (precision or slurring); and rate
(speed). We tend to evaluate others' speech based on our own standards. If you raise your voice
during a conversation, chances are that will be interpreted as you being angry or irritated.
However, raising your voice is common among many cultural groups as an indication of
sincerity or authenticity.

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For example, some African Americans tend to have expressive voices and are passionate about
their speaking points, which can be mistaken for anger. Also, putting the accent on a different
part of a word or a different word in a sentence can send very different meanings, as can shifts
in tone at the end of the phrase (rising or falling). Consider the different ways to pronounce
just really?. Decoding nonverbal cues at this level requires a sophisticated understanding of
the language.
Facial expressions falls under a larger category of nonverbal communication, kinesics, or body
movement. The face is capable of producing 250,000 different expressions. Many of these vary
cross-culturally, but some can be recognized across cultures. These are the facial expressions
accompanying emotions represented by SADFISH: sadness, anger, disgust, fear, interest,
surprise, and happiness. People of some cultures are taught from a very young age not to show
certain emotions, making it more difficult for people from these cultures to identify these
emotional expressions when they see them.
The most expressive part of the face is the eyes, and for this reason, many scholars categorize
gaze separately from facial expressions. Eye contact is a very powerful communication tool.
Holding eye contact can be a sign of respect, truthfulness, attraction, attention, or domination
and power, for example. Failure to make eye contact can similarly be an indication of respect,
fear, intimidation, lack of interest, and more. Some of this depends on the culture. For example,
in most Western cultures, it's considered appropriate behavior to look someone in the eye
during a conversation, and to comfortably hold that gaze with the other person. In fact, failing
to make eye contact often raises suspicion about ulterior motives. In many Eastern cultures,
however, making and maintaining eye contact can indicate disrespect when it involves people
of different positions along the social hierarchy; it's considered impolite to look a teacher in
the eye, for example.
Gestures, another form of kinesics, are culturally specific. Researchers have sub-divided
gestures into four areas: emblems, or gestures shat substitute for words and phrases, such as
raising your shoulders for "I don't know"'; illustrators help illustrate what we are trying to say,
perhaps by indicating "this big"; regulators are used to control, maintain, or "regulate" the
pace and flow of conversation, such as putting up your forefinger to indicate you're not finished
speaking; and adaptors are habits or gestures that fulfill some kind of psychological need, such
as picking lint off your shirt or playing with your hair. Some cultures rely far more heavily on
gestures as accompaniments to their verbal communication than others. For example, the

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Italian language employs such a high degree of emblems that entire conversations can almost
be held using emblems alone. Adaptors are often employed when someone is nervous or
perhaps being dishonest, but not always. Because gestures are culturally specific, their intended
meaning can become very confusing when communicating across cultures.
Haptics is the study of touch, and its rules vary considerably across cultures. Arabic men often
hold hands while most U.S. men wouldn't dare. In the U.S. we often hug hello and good-bye
while in many other nations kisses on the cheeks are the standard salutations. There are also
different places on the body where touch is appropriate given your relationship with that
person. It's generally considered fine around the globe to pat buttocks on sports teams, but try
this with your boss and you're probably asking for trouble.
The study of space is proxemics, and it too is culturally regulated. We each live within our
personal "bubble", the space around us reserved for intimate others, and feel offended or at
least awakened when someone violates the boundary of that space bubble without the
permission that accompanies greater intimacy. Some cultures are comfortable speaking at a
distance of 12-18 inches with non-intimate others while other cultures need at least 2 feet, and
others still require as much as 5-6 feet of distance when speaking with a nonintimate
conversation partner. These differences can create discomfort and confusion when you
accidentally violate someone's space bubble. The next section discusses this concept in greater
detail.
In the consideration of interpersonal boundaries, what is a comfortable distance for members
of one cultural group can feel like crowding to those of another. In the US, research suggests
that we have four spatial zones: intimate, personal, social, and public. The intimate zone is
reserved for those closest to us such as family, close friends, and an emotional situation. Its
distance is zero to 18 inches. The personal zone is reserved for closer friends, some
acquaintances, and colleagues. Its distance is eighteen to forty-eight inches. The social zone is
what we typically find at a larger event such as a party, and its distance is forty-eight inches to
twelve feet. Finally, the distance of twelve feet or more is the public zone. When any of these
zones is violated, anxiety or discomfort can result.
For European Americans, the average conversational distance is approximately twenty inches.
In many Latin American and Caribbean cultures, that distance reduces to fourteen to fifteen
inches. In Saudi Arabia, among same-sex speakers, the ideal conversational distance reduces
even further to nine to ten inches. The concept of personal space is unseen, yet can result in a

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good deal of intercultural discomfort and misunderstanding. Consider the colleague from a
place with a smaller comfortable speaking distance, who enters your intimate zone unwittingly,
engendering some discomfort to you. You back away slightly to regain your comfortable space
bubble, yet your colleague matches your step with one of his/her own, again closing the space.
This can make for a rather awkward conversation, regardless of the topic. Unconsciously, we
deem our personal space our protective territory that we carry around with us; it is sacred,
nonviolable, and nonnegotiable. Different cultures have different space requirements for each
of the above zones, but the experience of space and space violation carries across cultures and
gender groups.
Environmental boundaries are the space we claim and to which we become emotionally
attached along with other members of our communities. Territory and identity are
interconnected concepts because of the amount of time, effort, emotion and self-worth that is
invested in what we claim as our primary territories. Our home territory or environment
immediately surrounding us strongly influences our everyday lives. Further, our behaviour is
defined by the people we interact with and the environment where the communication occurs.
For example, middle-class neighbourhoods in Canada or the U.S. are very different from those
of Latin America, the Middle East and Asia, and those varied environments strongly influence
the behaviours of their inhabitants. Middle class homes in the U.S. are physically separated
from neighbours with a fence, gate, yard, or some combination thereof. Within the home,
environmental boundaries are exercised through separate bedrooms and bathrooms, and many
locks.
In Mexico, however, we see a very different approach to the neighbourhood structure. Homes
are built and arranged around a central plaza, perhaps with a community centre and church.
Family members share bedrooms and bathrooms, and there are not many interior locks. Thus,
U.S. homes tend to reflect individualistic values while Mexican homes tend to reflect
collectivistic values.
Psychological boundaries can be defined as the expectation of space around you in an empty
elevator or movie theatre. How do you feel when someone sits right next to you on a park
bench, when there are many other park benches free? These are examples of psychological
space. Crowded conditions in cities such as Hong Kong, Mumbai and Bangkok make it nearly
impossible for people to experience privacy as we know it in the U.S. Privacy itself can be
deemed offensive in some cultures who value a more communal-collectivistic way of living.

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Some languages have non-existent or at minimum very different terms for the expression of
privacy, indicating the minimal or different importance this concept plays in the lives of the
people sharing this language.
Together, these three types of spatial boundaries are invisible, yet we feel uncomfortable and
violated when our boundaries are not respected. Cross-culturally this can lead to some
discomfort and confusion – it's hard to respect a boundary that you can't see and aren't aware
is there.
CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors
influence human behavior. While many aspects of human thought and behavior are universal,
cultural differences can lead to often surprising differences in how people think, feel, and act.
Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the importance of personal
autonomy. Other cultures, however, may place a higher value on collectivism and cooperation
among members of the group. Such differences can play a powerful role in many aspects of
life.
Cross-cultural psychology is also emerging as an increasingly important topic as researchers
strive to understand both the differences and similarities among people of various cultures
throughout the world. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP)
was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop
since that time.1
Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs
among various cultures throughout the world.
Why Cross-Cultural Psychology Is Important
After prioritizing European and North American research for many years, Western researchers
began to question whether many of the observations and ideas that were once believed to be
universal might apply to cultures outside of these areas. Could their findings and assumptions
about human psychology be biased based on the sample from which their observations were
drawn?
Cross-cultural psychologists work to rectify many of the biases that may exist in the current
research2
and determine if the phenomena that appear in European and North American
cultures also appear in other parts of the world.

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For example, consider how something such as social cognition might vary from an
individualist culture such as the United States versus a collectivist culture such as China. Do
people in China rely on the same social cues as people in the U.S. do? What cultural differences
might influence how people perceive each other? These are just some of the questions that a
cross-cultural psychologist might explore.
What Exactly Is Culture?
Culture refers to many characteristics of a group of people, including attitudes, behaviors,
customs, and values that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultures throughout
the world share many similarities but are marked by considerable differences. For example,
while people of all cultures experience happiness, how this feeling is expressed varies from
one culture to the next.3
The goal of cross-cultural psychologists is to look at both universal behaviors and unique
behaviors to identify the ways in which culture impacts our behavior, family life, education,
social experiences, and other areas.4
Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two approaches:
• The etic approach studies culture through an "outsider" perspective, applying one
"universal" set of concepts and measurements to all cultures.
• The emic approach studies culture using an "insider" perspective, analyzing concepts
within the specific context of the observed culture.
SIX FUNDAMENTAL PATTERNS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
In a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is one of the
powerful forces that acts on us. Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter Black explain the
importance of culture this way:
...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic"... by
which we order it; the "grammar" ... by which it makes sense. 1
In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how
we express ourselves.
As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together,
cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that
can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture
is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or
assumptions that are different from others'.

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Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to
vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring
causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties.2 As you enter into multicultural dialogue
or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a
confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing
this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world
from others' points of view.
1. Different Communication Styles
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One
aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and
phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English
language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so,"
with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-
verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions
and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of
time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in
communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white
Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while
some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign
of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with
greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or
non-white racial groups.
2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be
avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged
to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily
are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in
many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as
a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored
means to address the conflict.
3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing
tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the
rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas
about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to
the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case
in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing
relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion

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toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to
focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on
the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds
are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or
less; it means they may pursue them differently.
4. Different Decision-Making Styles
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For
example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns
responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and
Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making
responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is
a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware
that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be
influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons
behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in
mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are
dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable
revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What
was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive
to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something
to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views,
experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
6. Different Approaches to Knowing
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies --
that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider
information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more
valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures'
preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm.
Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained
through striving toward transcendence.3
Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to
previously overlooked ways of knowing.4 Indeed, these different approaches to
knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to
resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand
a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places
and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a
feeling for what has worked elsewhere.

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HIGH CONTEXT AND LOW CONTEXT
The concepts of high context and low context refer to how people communicate in different
cultures. Differences can be derived from the extent to which meaning is transmitted through
actual words used or implied by the context.
High context implies that a lot of unspoken information is implicitly transferred during
communication. People in a high context culture such as Saudi Arabia tend to place a larger
importance on long-term relationships and loyalty and have fewer rules and structure
implemented.
Low context implies that a lot of information is exchanged explicitly through the message itself
and rarely is anything implicit or hidden. People in low context cultures such as the UK tend
to have short-term relationships, follow rules and standards closely and are generally very task-
oriented.
Understanding whether your international colleagues are high context or low context will help
you to adapt your communication style and build stronger relationships with them. These
concepts are covered during cross-cultural training programmes such as Communicating across
Cultures and managing international teams. Cultural awareness training which focuses on one
or more specific cultures like Doing Business in India or Living and Working in China will
also address these concepts.
When doing business in a high context culture such as Mexico, Japan or the Middle East, you
might encounter the following:
• Misunderstanding when exchanging information
• Impression of a lack of information
• Large amount of information is provided in a non-verbal manner, e.g. gestures, pauses,
facial expressions
• Emphasis on long term relationships and loyalty
• ‘Unwritten’ rules that are taken for granted but can easily be missed by strangers
• Shorter contracts since less information is required
When doing business in a low context culture such as Germany, Switzerland or the US, on the
other hand, you might find the following:
• All meaning is explicitly provided in the message itself
• Extensive background information and explanations are provided verbally to avoid
misunderstandings

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• People tend to have short-term relationships
• People follow rules and standards closely
• Contracts tend to be longer and very detailed
High and low context cultures usually correspond with polychronic and monochronic cultures
respectively. The table below shows some general preferences of people from high context
and low context cultures.
High Context Low Context
Indirect and implicit messages Direct, simple and clear messages
Polycrhonic Monochronic
High use of non-verbal communication Low use of non-verbal communication
Low reliance on written communication High reliance on written communication
Use intuition and feelings to make
decisions
Rely on facts and evidence for decisions
Long-term relationships Short-term relationships
Relationships are more important than
schedules
Schedules are more important than
relationships
Strong distinction between in-group and
out-group
Flexible and open

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CULTURAL IDENTITY
Culture is the shared characteristics of a group of people, which encompasses, place of birth,
religion, language, cuisine, social behaviors, art, literature, and music. Some cultures are
widespread, and have a large number of people who associate themselves with those particular
values, beliefs, and origins. Others are relatively small, with only a small number of people
who associate themselves with that culture. However, the value of culture cannot be defined
by its size. No matter if a culture is widespread or kept within a small region, is young or old,
or has changed over time or stayed the same, every culture can teach us about ourselves, others,
and the global community.
CO-CULTURE; SUBCULTURE; SUBGROUP
A culture is a unique way of life that people follow. It defines someone and gives expectations
to others about how they should act, because typically people of the same culture, have
commonalities. However even within a culture where people are extremely similar, there are
differences from one person to the next, and even smaller portions of people included in that
culture. The categories in these larger cultures are described as: co-culture, subculture and
subgroup. Our book defines these terms very briefly, but does not go into much detail.
Co-culture is used to imply that no culture is superior and that some may coexist within a
culture or a place. It is a group that shares values, norms and things of the sort, but not defined
by where someone lived, or grew up or their nationality. Some examples of a co-culture are
Ethnic groups, minorities, or religions. For instance a co culture I identify with is being a
woman.
Within a larger culture there are smaller groups that have values and norms that differ from the
general culture, but are accepted by this smaller group. This group can be defined as a sub
culture. Dick Hebdige argues in his book, The Meaning of Style, that “a subculture is a
subversion to normalcy.” He explains that these subcultures are formed because of people
feeling disregarded by their own culture because of different views or beliefs. Some
subcultures might include, hipsters, environmentalists, spots fans, travellers, all of which are
categories I could fall under.
Subgroups are a group based in vocation, avocation, or special skills that, like cultures, provide
patterns of behavior and value. This would include things like your occupation or for a student
it might be grade level. Another example that I might use to describe a subgroup would be the

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environmental club at south. These groups form within a culture and the people in the m interact
regularly therefor are similar culturally and with their behavior.
ACCULTURATION
Acculturation can be defined as the ‘process of learning and incorporating the values, beliefs,
language, customs and mannerisms of the new country immigrants and their families are living
in, including behaviors that affect health such as dietary habits, activity levels and substance
use.
Linear Model of Acculturation: Process in which immigrating people are absorbed into the
dominant culture by changing their values, attitudes, and behaviors to fit more with the
dominant culture than their own group of reference. Assimilation is seen as the goal for the
linear model of acculturation (Castro, 2003).
Bi-dimensional Model of Acculturation: A process in which an immigrant can maintain their
ethnic identity as well as develop a positive identification with the dominant society (Castro,
2003)
Acculturation Strategies: A person’s attitudes or preference toward acculturating as well as his
or her behaviors. Four acculturation strategies have been identified: integration, assimilation,
separation, and marginalization (Berry, 2006).
Integration: Immigrant’s preference to maintain both ethnic identity while interacting with
other groups (Berry, 2006).
Assimilation: When a person does not wish to maintain his or her cultural identity and take up
the cultural identity of the dominant society (Berry, 2006).
Separation: When an individual does not become involved in the dominant culture and instead
focuses on his or her own cultural heritage (Berry, 2006).
FUNDEMENTALS OF CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Culture is deeply engrained in the fabric of society. From the way we drink our coffee, to the
way we do business, culture creates the sense of security and belonging that we need to truly
connect with each other. It is needless to say that when you operate across cultures, there are a
couple of extra hurdles to deal with before you can truly connect. So before you jump into that

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conversation with your colleague from abroad, stop to consider the following points. They will
help you on your way to jump the cultural hurdles without falling flat on your face.
1. Awareness
It all starts with this: being aware that different countries have different ways and times of
doing things. Your way is not THE way (and neither is theirs). As in marriage, a common
culture is to be developed over the years. And yes, this takes time, patience but mostly the will
to truly understand what drives the person or the organisation you are dealing with.
2. Preparation
Before you meet your foreign colleague, take the time to do read up on their country’s rituals
and etiquette. Should you address your colleague by their first name or not? Something simple
like how to greet them is probably culturally determined. In some countries a hug, a tap on the
shoulder or a kiss are quite normal, whereas in others these come close to harassment. You
should not aim for a perfect mastery of their etiquette, though. The fact that you’ve taken the
trouble to do some research and that you try to do things right, is often enough to show people
that you care.
3. Language
One of culture’s main expressions is language. As soon as people open their mouths to speak,
you can more or less place them in a geographical region and a social/cultural subgroup. When
you and your counterpart speak different languages, work with an interpreter to avoid
misunderstandings. An added bonus is that the interpreter does not only know both languages,
but also the underlying cultures. Interpreters will hence translate both the words and the cultural
context.
If you speak the same language as your counterpart, but come from different countries, you are
not out of the woods yet. Case in point are the differences between Dutch and Flemish (Belgian
Dutch). One and the same word may mean something totally different. Even when you speak
the same language, your should try to avoid slang and ask for clarification when something that
was said does not make sense. You may have false friends interfering with the conversation.
4. Humour
Be extremely careful with humour. It is often said that jokes don’t translate and that is because
well, they don’t. Moreover, in many cultures it is not acceptable to crack jokes in a business
context. Sarcasm, the basic ingredient of British humour, can be immensely funny if you are
used to it. If you’re not, it can come across as an insult, or worse still, an attack. Most of all:

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avoid telling jokes about your colleague’s country, it is a slippery slope that will leave you
crippled nine times out of ten.
5. Openness
The person opposite you may be just as nervous about wading in the murky cross-cultural
waters as you are. There is no weakness in admitting that you are nervous because you do not
want to mess up. Ask for feedback. This will give your counterpart the opportunity to help you
along the way, and most of all, to connect with you. Vulnerability is, after all, human and
something that everyone can relate to, wherever they come from.
Many a book has been written about effective cross-cultural communication, and all these
insights are very helpful. They should definitely be considered as parts of the puzzle, but not
as absolute truths. Think of it: you may be French, and have the same cultural references as
your fellow Frenchmen, but feel more comfortable with the English way of doing business. In
cross-cultural communication, and indeed in communication as such, connecting is the
objective. Language, both verbal and non-verbal, is the key. If you put the tools and partners
in place to connect across cultures, you will start seeing hurdles as welcome challenges that
help you reinforce the message you want to share.
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
Cultural imperialism was around long before the United States became a world power. In its
broadest strokes, imperialism describes the ways that one nation asserts its power over another.
Just as imperial Britain economically ruled the American colonists, so did Britain strongly
influence the culture of the colonies. The culture was still a mix of nationalities—many Dutch
and Germans settled as well—but the ruling majority of ex-Britons led British culture to
generally take over.
Today, cultural imperialism tends to describe the United States’ role as a cultural superpower
throughout the world. American movie studios are generally much more successful than their
foreign counterparts not only because of their business models but also because the concept of
Hollywood has become one of the modern worldwide movie business’s defining traits.
Multinational, nongovernmental corporations can now drive global culture. This is neither
entirely good nor entirely bad. On one hand, foreign cultural institutions can adopt successful
American business models, and corporations are largely willing to do whatever makes them
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making movies, or making multicultural films such as 2008’s Slumdog Millionaire. However,
cultural imperialism has potential negative effects as well. From a spread of Western ideals of
beauty to the possible decline of local cultures around the world, cultural imperialism can have
a quick and devastating effect.
CULTURAL HEGEMONY
To begin discussing the topic of cultural imperialism, it is important to look at the ideas of one
of its founding theorists, Antonio Gramsci. Strongly influenced by the theories and writings of
Karl Marx, Italian philosopher and critic Gramsci originated the idea of cultural hegemony to
describe the power of one group over another. Unlike Marx, who believed that the workers of
the world would eventually unite and overthrow capitalism, Gramsci instead argued that culture
and the media exert such a powerful influence on society that they can actually influence
workers to buy into a system that is not economically advantageous to them. This argument
that media can influence culture and politics is typified in the notion of the American Dream.
In this rags-to-riches tale, hard work and talent can lead to a successful life no matter where
one starts. Of course, there is some truth to this, but it is by far the exception rather than the
rule.
Marx’s ideas remained at the heart of Gramsci’s beliefs. According to Gramsci’s notion,
the hegemons of capitalism—those who control the capital—can assert economic power, while
the hegemons of culture can assert cultural power. This concept of culture is rooted in Marxist
class struggle, in which one group is dominated by another and conflict arises. Gramsci’s
concept of cultural hegemony is pertinent in the modern day not because of the likelihood of a
local property-owning class oppressing the poor, but because of concern that rising
globalization will permit one culture to so completely assert its power that it drives out all
competitors.
EFFECTS THEORY VS RECEPTION THEORY
There are two sub-theories under the main umbrella term of ‘media theories’; reception theory
and the effects theory. These theories are often considered to be opposites to each other as the
effects theory considers the audience to be passive, whereas on the other hand, the reception
theory gives the audience more credit and considers them to be active.

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The effects theory, to summarise, suggests that audiences are powerless to resist the messages
that media depict. Thus comes the term ‘hypodermic needle’. “The Hypodermic Needle Theory
is a linear communication theory which suggests that media messages are injected directly into
the brains of a passive audience. It suggests that we’re all the same and we all respond to media
messages in the same way.” (Lamb, 2013). This implies that mass media causes an immediate
and influential effect upon a passive audience.
It also suggests that there is no individual different between members of the audience, meaning
they all react to media messages in the same way, accepting the message that they are given.
One flaw with the effects model however, is that is depending on the media presenting one
single, exact meaning, and the audience decoding the exact same meaning the creators intended
them to interpret. Thus removing all context from the media message to arrive at the same
response every time.
RECEPTION THEORY
Stuart Hall developed reception theory, popularly known as Audience Theory or reader’s
reception theory, in 1973. His essay ‘Encoding and Decoding Television Discourse’ focuses
on the encoding and decoding of the content given to the audience no matter the form of media
such as magazines/papers, television/radios, games. Today theorists who do the analysis of
media through reception theory often derive results from the experience of an audience created
by watching a cinema, game or books.
The reception theory concept points out that, a movie, book, or game events though it has
none/some inherent meaning, the audience who watch them or experience it make a meaning.
The audience comes into an understanding of the happenings of the text or screen.
Understanding of Reception Theory
“It is unnecessary that the audience will decode the message encoded by the author just the
same”. – Stuart Hall
The audience receives the creative work done and perceives to its content in either similar or
different. The meaning of the message can change in the way they see it fit according to their
social context.
Encoding – The encoded messages usually contains shared rules and symbols common with
other people. So the (encoder) sender has to think how the receiver will perceive the message.

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Decoding – Decoding would be a successful deliver only if the message sent by the encoder is
understood completely to its content as it was intended.
The messages sent with verbal/non-verbal cues and gestures don’t bring the same result always
as intended by the sender, bringing an altogether different meaning an insight to the concept
sent. Thus, the distortion occurs when the audience cannot understand the concept of having a
different take on the conclusion itself. Such distortion can be because of the age, gender,
religion, race, political views, ethnicity, class, culture and the mood in which the audience
receive the message etc.,
It is difficult to gather the information necessary to analyze every single audience’s experience
belongs to a mass. So the media houses and other social handles come in a useful tool to reach
the bigger mass as to get to know their experience and understanding.
Press releases, other forms of publicity such as advertisements, the fan letters, celebrity words,
fan message boards, reviews, serve as useful materials for the analysts to see how the reception
has been.
Here the perceiving of the work can scope in three categories:
▪ Dominant Reader
▪ Negotiated Reader
▪ Oppositional Reader
Dominant Reader
They are the audience who take in the work as given by the director which no extra notes
attached. Example, Teacher asking the student to submit their assignments or parent implying
on the child to clean their room is a direct message. The child understands the messages
properly and it is followed by the child. In the Harry Potter Series, Lord Voldemort is a bad
guy, and how have the media producers have conveyed it with a bald head, black cloak, sunken
eyes, cold and cruel voice, and threatening presence to his surroundings.
Negotiated Reader
The negotiated reading here is the audiences who thought they know and are aware of the acts
made in the film are bad and not right but get on to accept that it is fine because there is a
reason behind it. Thus accepting the author’s message even though it goes against the
audiences’ personal convictions. For example, many video games/comics has contents are
against our personal views but we still read, enjoy and accept the content given the situation
depicted on it for example fictions like zombie hunting, etc.

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Oppositional Reader
The audience has none acceptance for the author’s takes on the concept of the film or the
subject it handled. It can be morally wrong, emotionally disturbing, unnecessary adult contents
of violence and blood gore, religious belief, political outlooks etc., which will make the
audience, reject the idea. For example, in 1970-1980 was an era in Indian Films they showed
smoking as a sign of prestige, image, wealth, power and flourishing happiness whereas, the
reality states otherwise, for it causes cancer. And the pleasant sense of smoking is nothing more
than juxtaposed where in reality is an unpleasant smell and is perceived as a very unhealthy
habit.
CULTURAL SENSITIVITY?
The idea behind cultural sensitivity is very straightforward. Cultural sensitivity refers to a set
of skills that allows you to learn about and understand people whose cultural background is not
the same as yours. Cultural sensitivity is being aware that cultural differences and similarities
between people exist without assigning them a value – positive or negative, better or worse,
right or wrong.
SOCIAL CHANGE
SOCIAL CHANGE: The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in
human interactions and interrelations. Society is a web of social relationships and hence social
change means change in the system of social relationships. These are understood in terms of
social processes and social interactions and social organization.  It is a normal process which
occurs throughout human society and it occurs over time in response to complex
environmental, political and social factors.
MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE - The word ‘change’ denotes a difference in anything
observed over some period of time. Hence, social change would mean observable differences
in any social phenomena over any period of time. Social change refers to the modifications
which take place in life pattern of people. It occurs because all societies are in a constant state
of disequilibrium. Theorists of social change agree that in most concrete sense of the word
‘change’, every social system is changing all the time. The composition of the population
changes through the life cycle and thus the occupation or roles changes; the members of society

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undergo physiological changes; the continuing interactions among member modify attitudes
and expectations; new knowledge is constantly being gained and transmitted.
Definitions of Social change WHAT IS SOCIAL CHANGE?  “Social Change means that
large number of persons engaging in activities that differ from those in which they or their
parents were engaged some years before.” (F.E. Merrill). According to Jones “Social change
is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect of social processes,
social patterns, social interaction or social organization”. Social Change occurs when societies
change their conditions according to their need..  Change in climate  Change in material 
Change in culture  Change in governance  Change in environment All these things causes
society to change into new and better living conditions to make life easier.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
 EVOLUTION THEORY
 FUNCIONALIST THEORY
 CYCLICAL THEORY
 CONFLICT THEORY
EVOLUTION THEORY - Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies
gradually change from simple beginnings into even more complex forms. According to them
social change meant progress toward something better. They saw change as positive and
beneficial. To them the evolutionary process implied that societies would necessarily reach
new and higher levels of civilization.
Evolutionary theories assume that there is a consistent direction of social change carrying all
societies through a similar sequences of stages from the original to the final stage of
development. Also the evolutionary theories imply that when the final stage is reached,
evolutionary theories will end.
Types of Evolutionary theories  UNILINEAR EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: This theory
was proposed by HERBRT SPENCER. The theory contents that all societies pass through the
same successive stages of evolution and reach the same end.  MULTI LINEAR THEORY:
This theory was propounded by contemporary social evolutionist Gerhard Lenski. This theory
holds that change can occur in several ways and does not inevitably lead in the same direction.
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY - Functionalist theory emphasises what maintains society, not
what changes it. Talcott Parsons who is one of the main functionalists saw society in its natural

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state as being stable and balanced. This theory mainly focuses on what maintains a system,
not what changes it.
EQUILIBRIUM THEORY: Through this theory Talcott tries to say that changes occur in one
part of society, there must be adjustments in other parts. If this does not happen, strains will
occur and the society’s equilibrium will be threaten.
CYCLICAL THEORY - This theory focusses on the rise and fall of civilizations attempting to
discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay. Toynbee and Sorokin can be
regarded as the champions of this theory. This theory posits that every society undergoes a
phenomenon of cyclical change. Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a
similar life-cycle, birth, maturity, old-age and death. After making a study of eight major
civilizations including the west he said that the modern western society is in the last stage i.e.
old age.
CONFLICT THEORY - Conflict theorists emphasizes the role of coercion and power in
producing social order. This perspective is derived from the works of KARL MARX. This
theory holds that change has crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social injustices
and in equalities. Every society experience at every moment social conflict, hence social
conflict is ubiquitous. Every element in society contributes to change and so conflicts in society
also leads societies to bring changes or to be changed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture has five basic characteristics: It is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated, and
dynamic. All cultures share these basic features.
• Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is
unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The process
of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological
needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
• Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are
able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite
the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same).
The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail below.
• Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else.
Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people

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in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is
the most important symbolic component of culture.
• Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being
interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly
understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
• Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most
cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All
cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing
environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.
ROLAND BARTHES- CULTURAL CODE
The Five Codes
“To interpret a text is not to give it a (more or less justified, more or less free) meaning but on
the contrary to appreciate what plural constitutes it.” (Barthes S/Z, 4)
Reading the Plural Text
According to Barthes, there is always more than one way to read a text. Within any given text
there is a plurality of meaning rather than one correct reading. Uncovering a text’s plural
meaning requires not only reading but also re-reading. Every time you read a text, you read it
in a slightly different way. With each re-reading, another meaning comes to the surface. We
are familiar with there being more than one plot line in a text. Barthes’s threads, however, are
found at the semiotic rather than the narrative level. His theory of the five codes is a way of
grouping signifiers according to the role they play in the text.
The Five Codes
Barthes identifies five different kinds of semiotic elements that are common to all texts. He
gathers these signifiers into five codes: Hermeneutic, Proairetic, Semantic, Symbolic,
and Cultural. To learn more about each code, use this interactive explanation.
The term codes can be misleading. Rather than a set of rules for how a text should be
interpreted, Barthes’s codes are a perspective from which you can view a text. Reading a text
with the five codes in mind is like looking at an image through a series of coloured lenses. The
image remains the same but your impression of it changes.

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• Cultural Code: The Cultural Code refers to anything in the text which refers to an
external body of knowledge such as scientific, historical, and cultural knowledge. In
the starred reading, the Cultural Code is represented as REF.
• Filiation: The act or process of determining the relationship of one thing to another
from which it may be said to be descended or derived.
• Genre: Of a kind, type, or class; in this case referring to a distinctive type of text.
• Hermeneutic Code: The Hermeneutic Code contains anything in the text that is
mysterious or unexplained, usually leading to questions which the reader needs
answered. In the starred reading, the Hermeneutic Code is represented as HER.
• Lexia: Barthes describes lexias as “blocks of signification” and “units of reading”
(S/Z 13). Lexias are the smaller sections of a larger, master text. Each lexia will contain
one of more meanings corresponding to the Five Codes.
• Method: A special form of procedure adopted in any branch of mental activity, whether
for the purpose of teaching and exposition, or for that of investigation and inquiry.
• Plurality: The fact or condition of denoting, comprising, or consisting of more than
one; plural meaning.
• Proairetic Code: The Proairetic Code contains sequential elements of action in the
text. Like the Hermeneutic code, Proairetic elements add suspense to the text. In the
starred reading, the Proairetic Code is represented as ACT.
• Semantic Code: The Semantic Code refers to elements of the text that carry referential,
extra-literal meaning. Elements of the Semantic Code are called Semes. In the starred
reading, the Semantic Code is represented as SEM.
• Seme: A seme is an element of the Semantic Code. The seme has a connotative function
in the text. It has an extra layer of meaning in addition to its literal meaning.
• Sign: The sign is derived from the relationship between the signifier and the signified.
• Signified: That part of a sign which is stood for by the signifier.
• Signifier: The material part of a sign that stands for the signified.
• Starred Reading: Once the master text has been divided into lexias, the reader
identifies which of the five codes is represented in each lexia and provides a short
explanation for how the code is manifested.
• Symbolic Code: The Symbolic code refers to organized systems of semes. When two
connotative elements are placed in opposition or brought together by the narrator, they

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form an element of the Symbolic Code. In the starred reading, the Symbolic Code is
represented as SYM.
PEOPLES CULTURE
Peoples Culture is an arts collective in Chicago and New York working to reimagine
shared narratives through collaborative art-making practices. Multimedia is employed
as a way to question static narratives formed by structural realities using new media
design, spatial planning, classic production, and moving image.
CULT
A cult is a group of people who have a religion or a set of beliefs. In modern times the
term "cult" usually does not mean a mainstream religion, but a group set up "in
opposition to a centre of established authority". New Age religions were often called
cults because they were thought to be deviant social movements.
The word cult originally meant a system of ritual practices. It was first used in the early
17th century to mean homage paid to a divinity. It came from an
ancient Latin word cultus meaning "worship".
A cult is often a small, newly started religious movement. Cults have beliefs or
practices that many people think of as being odd, or that have practices that most people
in the world do not practice. More than that, cults have often been led by people who
are not elected, and control the group according to their own wishes.[4]
Some cult
leaders have been dangerous criminals (Charles Manson; Peoples Temple) or even
lunatics. Killings and mass suicides have occurred in cults (Order of the Solar
Temple; Heaven's Gate). Of course, a "suicide" enforced by armed guards
carrying sub-machine guns (Peoples Temple; Movement for the Restoration of the Ten
Commandments of God) is not a simple suicide as generally understood. It is at least
an assisted and coerced suicide.
Whether a religious group is or is not a cult can be a hard question to answer. What is
at one point in time considered a cult may later be accepted as a religion and what at
one point of time is considered an accepted religion may later become a cult.
VIEW OF MARXIST ON MEDIA
Traditional Marxists argue that those who own the media also control it.
They note that the media is owned by members of the bourgeoisie: very wealthy business
owners. They argue that these bourgeois owners instruct editors and journalists to put across

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particular messages to the audience. These messages spread the dominant ideology which
seeks to justify the power and privilege of the bourgeoisie. Through this, the media is able to
contribute towards creating a false class consciousness.
This idea of direct control by owners is sometimes described as
the manipulative/instrumental approach and is associated with the writings of Ralph
Miliband. He argued that the editors and journalists in newspapers and other media
organisations depend on the owners for their jobs and therefore will not use any apparent
autonomy they may have to resist the dissemination of bourgeois ideology.
There certainly are examples of owners directly interfering with the content of the media.
Richard Desmond, former owner of the Express, apparently regularly visited the newspaper
offices making clear demand of what should be included. While Rupert Murdoch claims he
only took large, long-term decisions (such as which party the paper would support at a general
election or what their view on the European Union should be) former editors of his have
suggested a much more hands-on approach. Andrew Neil, who edited the Sunday Times for
Murdoch, has says that Murdoch was the de facto “editor in chief” of the Sun and, despite not
seeing himself in that role for the Times or the Sunday Times, nevertheless he did make direct
interventions (such as insisting that no articles were published that would offend the Malaysian
prime minster of the day).
Curran (2003) found lots of evidence of owners directly manipulating media content. In the
middle of the 20th
century, “press barons” were quite open about their propagandist role, and
also that there have always been a lot more Conservative-supporting newspapers than those
critical of that party, which reflects them serving the interests of their wealthy owners. He
argues that in the later 20th
century and today owners are, if anything, even more
interventionist, with again Rupert Murdoch being the obvious example.
Furthermore, politicians clearly believe media moguls to have a great deal of control over
media content because they try to get on the right side of them! Tony Blair famously flew to
Australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and was rewarded with the support of the Sun. Several
years later, David Cameron repeated this with the same outcome.
Evaluating traditional Marxist views
• One criticism of traditional Marxist theories of the ownership and control of the media
comes from neo-Marxists, who point out that the bourgeois owners of media companies
do not have time to micro-manage media content. Traditional Marxists suggest the

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owners have a clear political view and a clear set of economic interests and ensure that
their media companies project those views and disseminates an ideology that supports
their interests. But in reality, owners can have so many business interests that they can
really only control the big picture, leaving real control of media content down to editors.
Even the editors of large publications or programmes cannot control everything and
give some autonomy to their journalists.
• A further criticism comes from pluralists who argue that proprietors are predominantly
businessmen, not editors. James Whale (1997) argues that “media moguls” are busy
dealing with global business matters, not what story to run in a particular national
newspaper. A journalist who has written extensively about media control, Roy
Greenslade, asks the question, why would you own a newspaper if not to try and put
across your opinions? But pluralists have a clear response to that: to sell them and make
lots of money. If the aim of media owners is to make money, then their interest in the
content of the media does not relate to ideology or politics but to the more basic question
of what will sell. Owners might intervene sometimes in media content, but they will do
so because they want to ensure good sales figures. Even Curran, whose research
provides some evidence to support the Marxist perspective, argues that Rupert
Murdoch’s interventions in his publications are more based on commercial needs and
sales than being part of the ideological state apparatus.
• Many sociologists always question the idea of a passive audience who are delivered the
dominant ideology from above, which is discussed in more detail in a later section.
SOCIAL STATICS AND SOCIAL DYNAMICS
The social statics is concerned with the present structure of the society. It studies the current
laws, rules and present condition of the society. In social statics, it is observed as how the
present social laws are affecting the society.
Social Dynamics is how the processes of social changes are taking place. Social dynamics is
the theory of social progress. A true science of society must find out both the laws of order and
progress. The law of order is the concern of social statics and laws of progress are discovered
through social dynamics.
Statics in Sociology consisted of clarifying the interconnections between those social facts
which appear to be universally necessary for the existence of a society of any kind. The nature

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of connections between the family, the division of labour, property, government, religion,
morality and so on.
Dynamics in Sociology consisted of studying and tracing interconnections between these many
aspects of society as they actually existed and changed in the many types of society in the
cumulative process of history. It was a study that is of the actual varieties of societies existing
in the world. Social statics is chiefly analytical. Social dynamics is chiefly empirical. Dynamics
applies the analysis of statics to the study of actual societies.
ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular
community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word
“ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces
afterwards.
Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a
group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some
practical and ethical challenges.
What is ethnography used for?
Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and it often involved an
anthropologist living with an isolated tribal community for an extended period of time in order
to understand their culture.
This type of research could sometimes last for years. For example, Colin M. Turnbull lived
with the Mbuti people for three years in order to write the classic ethnography The Forest
People.
Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not just
anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but also to study
specific communities within the researcher’s own society.
For example, ethnographic research (sometimes called participant observation) has been used
to investigate gangs, football fans, call center workers, and police officers.
Advantages of ethnography
The main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the culture
and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and
interactions of people within a particular context.

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By becoming immersed in a social environment, you may have access to more authentic
information and spontaneously observe dynamics that you could not have found out about
simply by asking.
Ethnography is also an open and flexible method. Rather than aiming to verify a
general theory or test a hypothesis, it aims to offer a rich narrative account of a specific culture,
allowing you to explore many different aspects of the group and setting.
Disadvantages of ethnography
Ethnography is a time-consuming method. In order to embed yourself in the setting and gather
enough observations to build up a representative picture, you can expect to spend at least a few
weeks, but more likely several months. This long-term immersion can be challenging, and
requires careful planning.
Ethnographic research can run the risk of researcher bias. Writing an ethnography involves
subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to maintain the necessary distance to analyze a
group that you are embedded in.
There are often also ethical considerations to take into account: for example, about how your
role is disclosed to members of the group, or about observing and reporting sensitive
information.
Different approaches to ethnographic research
There are a few key distinctions in ethnography which help to inform the researcher’s
approach: open vs. closed settings, overt vs. covert ethnography, and active vs. passive
observation. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Open vs. closed settings
The setting of your ethnography—the environment in which you will observe your chosen
community in action—may be open or closed.
An open or public setting is one with no formal barriers to entry. For example, you might
consider a community of people living in a certain neighborhood, or the fans of a particular
baseball team.
• Gaining initial access to open groups is not too difficult…
• …but it may be harder to become immersed in a less clearly defined group.
A closed or private setting is harder to access. This may be for example a business, a school,
or a cult.

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• A closed group’s boundaries are clearly defined and the ethnographer can become fully
immersed in the setting…
• …but gaining access is tougher; the ethnographer may have to negotiate their way in
or acquire some role in the organization.
Overt vs. covert ethnography
Most ethnography is overt. In an overt approach, the ethnographer openly states their
intentions and acknowledges their role as a researcher to the members of the group being
studied.
• Overt ethnography is typically preferred for ethical reasons, as participants can provide
informed consent…
• …but people may behave differently with the awareness that they are being studied.
Sometimes ethnography can be covert. This means that the researcher does not tell participants
about their research, and comes up with some other pretense for being there.
• Covert ethnography allows access to environments where the group would not welcome
a researcher…
• …but hiding the researcher’s role can be considered deceptive and thus unethical.
Active vs. passive observation
Different levels of immersion in the community may be appropriate in different contexts. The
ethnographer may be a more active or passive participant depending on the demands of their
research and the nature of the setting.
An active role involves trying to fully integrate, carrying out tasks and participating in
activities like any other member of the community.
• Active participation may encourage the group to feel more comfortable with the
ethnographer’s presence…
• …but runs the risk of disrupting the regular functioning of the community.
A passive role is one in which the ethnographer stands back from the activities of others,
behaving as a more distant observer and not involving themselves in the community’s
activities.
• Passive observation allows more space for careful observation and note-taking…
• …but group members may behave unnaturally due to feeling they are being observed
by an outsider.

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While ethnographers usually have a preference, they also have to be flexible about their level
of participation. For example, access to the community might depend upon engaging in certain
activities, or there might be certain practices in which outsiders cannot participate.
SIX FUNDAMENTAL PATTERNS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
In a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is one of the
powerful forces that acts on us. Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter Black explain the
importance of culture this way:
...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic"... by
which we order it; the "grammar" ... by which it makes sense. 1
In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how
we express ourselves.
As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together,
cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that
can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture
is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or
assumptions that are different from others'.
Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to
vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring
causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties.2 As you enter into multicultural dialogue
or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a
confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing
this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world
from others' points of view.
1. Different Communication Styles
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of
communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in
different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of
"yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures;
it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition,

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different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to
cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised
voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often
feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some
white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of
some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided.
In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly
with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the
way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open
conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked
out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.
3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks.
Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards
associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how
relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the
importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point,
Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the
beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as
compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the
task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that
people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to
accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them
differently.
4. Different Decision-Making Styles
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example,
in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a
particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries,
there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When

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decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in
Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own
roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a
conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are
in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be
mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may
seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What
was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in
attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an
accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
6. Different Approaches to Knowing
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is,
the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired
through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of
coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of
knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to
emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.3
Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously
overlooked ways of knowing.4 Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect
ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your
group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify
possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced
challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.

Cross cultural communication

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