Motivation

Unit – II: Individual in Workplace
Motivation & Job Satisfaction
Introduction
The word “Motivation” is derived from the Latin word—“movere”, that means “to move”. That
which makes a person to action or to behaviour and continues them to action. The inner state or inner
drive, the urge or the desire of the person to do something is called Motivation.
Motivation is a psychological force within an individual that sets him in motion for achievement
of certain goals or satisfaction of certain needs. Psychologists believe that if we can identify what
motivates a person, we can understand the person.
It is the energy that gives them the strength to get up and keep going even when things are not
going their way.
Definition:
According to Flippo:-
“Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the
possibility of gain or reward.”
According to Robert Dubin:-
“Motivation is complex set of forces starting and keeping a person at task in an
organization.”
Why do people work?
Work is form of activity that has social approval and satisfies a need of the individual to be
active. Some of the reasons that people work are:
To produce to create
To gain respect to acquire
To earn money prestige
Motivational Cycle:
Motivational cycle is consists of three keys and distinct parts:-
Need Tension Search Performance Goal
Behaviour Incentive
Reward
Need Satisfaction
1. Need or Motive:
This is the state of physiological or Psychological imbalance. It is the origin of any motivated
behaviour. When an individual recognizes a need, he is driven by an inner drive to fulfill that need.
However, need in individual does not necessarily lead to action.
Unit – II: Individual in Workplace Ranju Lal
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2. Drive/Response of Motivated Behaviour:
It is the action directed towards reducing the imbalance. They are action-oriented and provide an
energizing thrust towards reaching a goal.
3. Goal:
It is the aim of the motivated behaviour which has to be reached in order to reduce the imbalance.
Goals, incentives or rewards are the instruments used to induce people to follow a desired course of
action.
As figure shows an unsatisfied of a person is the starting point in the motivation process. That
results in tension within the individual and motivates him to reach for the ways to relieve this tension. He
develops certain goals for himself. If he is successful in achieving his goals. Another need will emerge
which will lead in setting a new goal.
But if the goal is not achieved, the individual will engage himself in some other constructive or
destructive behaviour. This process never stops.
Features of Motivation:
These are some unique features/ characteristics of motivation:-
1. Motivation is a Psychological Phenomenon:
The process of motivation is mainly concerned with need, desires, expectations, confidence and
satisfaction is a psychological phenomenon. Hence, there is a factor of individual differences so its really
difficult to ascertain in practice that what incentives will motivate a person towards their desired goal.
2. Motivation is dynamic and situational:
The motives, behaviour and goals are all dynamic in nature. What drives a person today may not
drive him tomorrow. His needs, drives, expectations and value judgment, changes over time. So process
of motivation is dynamic.
Motivation is situational also. In a set of organizational climate, structure, physical facilities and
nature of work, one may be highly motivated. However any change in them may have an adverse effect
on his motivation.
3. motivation is a goal-oriented process
The motives for a person drive him to achieve goal to release his tension, e.g. a person may
search for food in order to satisfy his hunger need.
4. motivation is influenced by social and cultural norms.
Social and cultural values, customs and attributes play an important role in motivation. If society
attaches respect, recognition and acceptance to a job or organization, the individual is motivated to that
job or join/continue in that organization.
Types of Motivation:-
In an organization, if a manager want that the goal must be achieved by their subordinates, then
he has to motivate his employees time to time. The manager could use either of these types of motivation
on their employees:-
Positive Motivation Negative Motivation
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Positive Motivation:-
Positive motivation or Incentive motivation is based on reward. Workers could be offered
monetary or non-monetary incentives for achieving the desired goals.
Monetary means wages, incentives, salaries, pay, increment, etc.
Non-monetary incentives comprise increment in status, recognition or work, increasing
responsibilities, etc.
Negative Motivation –
Negative motivation means fear of loss of something can also be used to direct an employee
towards their goal. Fear causes employee to act in a certain way. Fear of suspension, demotion, wage cut
can motivate employees to do their work effectively and efficiently.
A supervisor also should have knowledge of both the motivating factors and should use
these time to time as per requirement, to achieve the goal.
Theories of Motivation
Various theories of Motivation can be categorized in two parts:-
Content Theories Process Theories
Content Theories- Individuals have psychological and a physiological need that prompts behaviour to
fulfill those needs. For example, a physiological need, hunger, may motivate individuals not only to find
out a job but to do distasteful work and be obedient to oppressive orders. A psychological need such as
drive for Self-Esteem, may motivate individuals to do exceptionally high-quality work. So these theories
of motivation focus o human needs or desires, that is internalized and give impetus to individual behavior.
Content theories include Maslow’s Need Hierarchy theory, Herzberg’s Dual Factor theory
(Motivator-Hygiene theory), McClelland’s three needs theory, etc.
Process Theories:- these theories provides an opportunity to understand thought processes that influence
behavior. It includes Vroom’s Expectancy theory ad Adam’s Equity theory.
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
One of the first behavioural scientists to make management aware of the complexity of
human needs and their affect on motivation was Abraham Maslow. When formulating his theory
of motivation during 1940’s, Maslow acknowledged that people really have many needs and they
vary in strength. He arranged all needs in pyramid shape. Those basic need (like shelter, food
and needs for daily survival comes at the bottom, while needs which is less important to staying
alive are higher on the pyramid.
Needs Hierarchy can be defined as “a Systematic arrangement of needs according to
priority, which assumes that basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused. We
must meet needs in lower level before we move onto the next level.
Basic premise/essence of his theory:
i. It is a need which provokes a man to work. Unsatisfied needs can influence bahaviour but
fulfilled needs can no longer be a motivator.
ii. Needs are arranged in the order of their importance from bottom to top. As we go from the
bottom to top, the complexity of need increases.
iii. When the needs from lower level are fulfilled, needs from higher level come to the surface
and motivate an individual.
iv. Lower needs are more physiological, but as we go to the higher it becomes more
psychological. So, psychological health and consciousness of a person increases as we go up.
Self –
Actualization
Needs
Truth, Justice, Wisdom
Esteem Needs
Achievement, Status,
Responsibility, Reputation
Social Needs
Family, affection, relationship, workgroup, Etc
Safety Needs
Protection, security, law & order, limits, stability, etc.
Physiological Needs
Basic life needs air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep, etc.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model
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1. Physiological Needs:-
These are the needs which are required for the survival and maintenance of human life,
such as – air, water, food, drink, shelter, etc. Maslow says that if such needs are not satisfied then
one’s motivation will arise from the quest to satisfy them.
2. Safety / Security Needs:-
Once we met our physiological needs then we move towards our safety / security in order
to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm.
Company can provide:
* living in a safe area * Job security * Pension plans * Gratuity
* Medical Insurance * Financial reserves * Provident fund
Maslow advocates that if a person feels that he or she is in harm way, higher needs will not
receive much attention.
3. Social Needs:-
When a person has met all his lower level physiological and safety needs then his higher
level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those which
are related to interaction with other people and may include (i) need for friends (ii) need for
belongingness, etc. Maslow said that love involves a healthy relationship between two people,
which includes mutual respect, admiration and trust.
Organizational Context:
Friendly work, environment, compatible peer group, supportive supervision, etc.
Company can provide:
Schemes like 5 working days a week, etc.
4. Esteem / Status Needs:-
When a person feels a sense of belongingness, the need of self-importance arises. These
needs are concerned with prestige and respect of the individual such as competence,
achievements, knowledge, initiative and success.
Esteem needs may be classified as –
Internal Esteem needs External Esteem Needs
Includes freedom, competence includes recognition, attention,
Achievement, confidence, etc. status, reputation, prestige, etc.
Organizational Context:
Job title, merit pay, peer / supervisory recognition, responsibility, challenging work, etc.
Company provide:
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Performance feedback, recognition, encouragement, promotions, etc.
5. Self Actualization Needs:-
Self actualization is a summit of Maslow’s theory. These needs are generally found in persons
whose first four needs have already been fulfilled. Maslow’s says – “What a man can be, he must be.” It
is the “full realization of one’s potentials.”
Organizational context:
Desire for excellence in one’s job, doing any work successfully, creating something, etc.
Company provide:
A challenge and opportunity to reach their full career potential.
The theory can be summarized as –
• Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied
needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
• Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance from basic to complex.
• The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least
minimally satisfied.
• The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more humanness and psychological health a
person will show.
Implications for the Management:-
If Maslow’s theory holds, there are some important implications for management. There are
opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job designs, company events
and compensation packages. Some examples are:--

 Physiological Needs: -- by providing lunch breaks, rest breaks and wages that are
sufficient to purchase the essentials of life.
 Safety Needs: -- by providing a safe working environment, retirement benefits and job
security.
 Social Needs: -- by creating a sense of community via team – based projects and social
events.
 Esteem Needs: -- by recognizing achievements to make employees feel appreciated and
valued, by offering job titles that convey the importance of the position.
 Self – Actualization: -- by providing employees a challenge and the opportunity to reach
their full career potential.

In sum, a manager needs to carefully observe his subordinate’s behavior to determine what
their active needs are. Because these needs change overtime, one cannot assume that a technique
that once worked will continue to work forever.
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Critical evaluation of Need Hierarchy Model: --
1. Motivate employee – Maslow educated the manager to identify employee needs and
answered the questions as to why different people are motivated by different factors.
2. Dynamic nature – The model clarifies that nature of man’s need is dynamic in nature.
When one need is fulfilled, needs to higher level arises and man is ever satisfied.
3. Different approach – Maslow’s approach is based on “Existential Philosophy” which
considers man as healthy, good and creative being who can make his own destiny.
4. No Hierarchy – Some critics argue that there is no hierarchy of needs and all the needs
exist at some time i.e. they are not closed compartments as suggested by Maslow. To
explain this, they say that even though man may be in need of self actualization, yet he
cannot forget his need for food or shelter.
5. Lack of universality – Critics argue that people from different cultures and countries
have different priorities of their needs and so it cannot be applied everywhere, as it is.
6. Individual differences – As different cultures have different need hierarchy patterns, so
is each individual different from the others in a culture. Therefore people may have
different need-hierarchy patterns.
7. Practicality – It has been said that it is not possible for a manager to identify where each
of his employee lies in the need hierarchy model and may not be able to apply the
principles in actual life.
Though Maslow’s hierarchy lacks scientific support, it is quite well-known and is the first
theory of motivation to which many people are exposed.
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Herzberg’s Motivator – Hygiene Theory
During the late 1950’s, Fredrick Herzberg and his associates developed another Need
based model of Motivation theory known as Motivation – Hygiene theory or two factor Theory.
This theory is based on the research carried out by Herzberg and his associates on a group of
employees of a paint company. The research team asked 200 employees, consisting of engineers,
managers and accountants, to respond to the questions: --
1. Can you describe, in detail, when you felt exceptionally good about your job?”
2. Can you describe, in detail, when you felt exceptionally bad about your job?”
It was found that factors that caused satisfaction were different from those that caused
dissatisfaction. So, he divided those responses in two general categories: --
1. Motivators factors 2. Maintenance factors (Hygiene factors)
1. Motivators Factors:
There are some job conditions which, if present, build high level of motivation & job
satisfaction. However, if these conditions are not present, they do not cause dissatisfaction. He
called these ‘motivational factors’ or ‘satisfiers.’ These are:
a) Achievement.
b) Recognition.
c) Advancement (through creative & challenging work).
d) The work itself.
e) The possibilities of personal growth.
f) Responsibility
2. Maintenance Factors:
There are some conditions of a job which operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when
they are not present. Herzberg called these factors maintenance or hygiene factors, since they are
necessary to maintain current status, i.e., a reasonable level of satisfaction. These factors cause
much dissatisfaction when they are not presents, but do not provide strong motivation. These are:
a) Company policy and administration.
b) Technical supervision.
c) Interpersonal relations with supervisor, peers and subordinates.
d) Salary.
e) Job security.
f) Personal life.
g) Work conditions
h) Status
Herzberg reasoned that because the factors causing satisfaction are different from those causing
dissatisfaction, the two feelings cannot simply be treated as apposite of one another.
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Implications for Management:
1. The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee.
2. Employees who demonstrate increasing level of ability should be give increasing level of
responsibility.
3. If a person cannot be fully utilized, the there will be a motivational problem.
Criticism of Herzberg’s Theory:
1. The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology. When things are going well,
people tend to take credit themselves. Contrarily, they blame failure on the extrinsic
environment.
2. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. A person may dislike parts of the job, yet
think the job is acceptable overall.
3. Herzberg assumes that there is a relation between satisfaction and productivity. But the
research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. To make such a
research relevant, one must assume a high degree of relationship between satisfaction and
relationship.
4. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned. Raters mat contaminate the findings
by interpreting one response in one manner while interpreting similar response in different
manner.
5. The two factors are not actually distinct. Both motivation and hygiene factors contribute to
satisfaction as dissatisfaction.
6. Herzberg gave too much emphasis on job enrichment. But job enrichment is not the only
answer. Off-the-job satisfaction of the workers is also very important. Herzberg does not
attach much importance to pay status or interpersonal relationships which are generally held as
important elements of satisfaction.
7. Herzberg drew conclusions from a limited study, covering engineering and accountants only,
which is not a complete representation of human population.
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McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
David C. McClelland proposed that human beings are directed by three needs: Power, Affiliation
& Achievement. The importance of these needs will vary from one person to another. If one can
determine the importance of these needs to an individual, it will in deciding how to influence that
individual.
McClelland asserted that a person’s needs are influenced by their cultural
background and life experiences. A person’s motivation and effectiveness can be increased
through an environment which provides them with their ideal mix of each of the three needs.
This theory is also known as Three needs Theory or Learned Needs Theory.
A brief description of three needs follows:
1. Need for Achievement (nAch)
 It is the drive to excel and achieve with respect to a predefined set of standards.
Succeeding at a task is important for achievers.
 Although people with a high need for achievement are often wealthy, their wealth comes
from their ability to achieve goals.
 High achievers prefer immediate feedback on their performance and they generally
undertake tasks of moderate difficulty. They neither go for very difficult tasks nor for a
very easy one because in the former case they get no achievement satisfaction from
accidental successes, and in the later case there is no challenge for their skills.
 McClelland believes that the need for achievement can be learned. He has cited numerous
instances in which people developed the need to achieve. He believes that the
economically backward cultures can be changed if the need to achieve is stimulated.
2. Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 It is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
 If asked to choose between working at a task with those who are technically competent
and those who are their friend, high nAff individuals will choose their friends.
 People dominated by the affiliation need would be attracted to jobs that have a
considerable social interaction.
1. Need for Power (nPow)
 It is the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved
otherwise. Actual achievement of goal is less important than the means by which goals
are achieved and the satisfaction is derived from being in a position to influence others.
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 People with a need for power tend to exhibit behaviour such as out-spoken ness,
forcefulness, willingness, to engage in confrontation, and a tendency to stand by their
original position.
 They often are persuasive speakers and demand a great deal from others.
 People with high need for power seek the position of leadership.
 The need (power) combined with achievement need can lead to productive and satisfying
result.
Criticism of McClelland’s Theory: --
1. People with high need for achievement expect similar results from others. As a result, they
may lack human skill and patience for being effective managers.
2. The theory does not deal fully with the process of motivation and how it really takes place.
3. Achievement motivation training, through promising, is time consuming and expensive.
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Incentives
Incentives are something additional to the wages, i.e. additional remuneration or benefit
to an employee in recognition of his achievement or better work.
Types of Incentives
Monetary Non-Monetary
1. Pay / Allowances 1. Status
2. Bonus 2. Job Enrichment
3. Perquisites 3. Opportunity for promotion
4. Profit sharing or career advancement
5. Employee stock option 4. Security of service
5. Suggestion scheme
6. Employee participation
and empowerment
Monetary Incentive: --
 Pay or Allowances: hike in pay or in other allowances.
 Bonus: it is offered over and above the wages / salaries to the employees.
 Perquisites: it includes car allowances, housing, medical and education to the
children, etc.
 Profit sharing: to provide a share to employees in the profits of the organization.
 Employee stock option: under this scheme, employees are offered company shares at
a set price which is lower than the market price.
Non-Monetary Incentives: --
 Status: refers to rank, authority, responsibility, recognition and prestige related to the
job.
 Job Enrichment: means increasing the contents of a job leading to up gradation of
responsibility, scope and challenge in its performance.
 Opportunity for promotion or Career advancement: providing opportunity for
their advancement and growth.
 Security of service: Job security
 Suggestion scheme: by inviting suggestions from workers.
 Employee participation & Empowerment: involving employees in decision
making. Empowerment means giving more autonomy and powers to subordinates.
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Job Satisfaction
Definition:
According to Feldman & Arnold: --
Job satisfaction is the amount of overall positive effect feelings, which individuals have
towards their job.”
So, Job satisfaction is an individual’s emotional reaction to the job itself. It is his attitude
towards his job if he likes his job intensely, he would be highly satisfied and he would be highly
dissatisfied if he dislikes his job intensely. In simple language, job satisfaction is the
favorableness or unfavourableness with which employees view their work. Job satisfaction
results when the job requirements match the wants and expectations of the employees.
Meaning and Nature:
Job satisfaction is a general attitude which is the result of many specific attitudes in three
areas:
1.) Specific job factors: These attitudes are related to the job. They are concerned
with specific factors such as wages, supervision, stability of employment, conditions of
work, promotion opportunities, fair performance appraisal, prompt settlement of
grievances etc.
2.) Individual characteristics such as employee’s age health, temperament,
desires and level of aspiration etc.
3.) Group Relationship (outside job) such as employee’s family relationships,
social status, activities of recreation etc.
IMPORTANCE OF JOB SATISFACTION
 Job satisfaction improves productivity of a worker.
 It reduces absenteeism and labor turnover.
 Job satisfaction is essential to maintain physical & mental health.
 It improves the image of any organization.
 Chronic dissatisfaction at work causes stress emotionally resulting in hypertension,
digestive ailments, and mood disorders and cancer.
 Job satisfaction improves the stability of the organization.
 Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction.
 Satisfied employees become affectionate with the organization.
 A satisfied employee is a productive asset to the organization.
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Determinants / Factors involved in Job Satisfaction:--
We can classify the factors related to job satisfaction into three broad categories:
Personal factors Job factors Organizational factors
1. Satisfaction in life 1. Type of work 1.Salary or wages
2. Gender 2. Skill required 2. Job security
3. Number of dependants 3. Occupational status 3. Opportunity for
4. Age 4. Geographical location advancement
5. Time on job 5. Size of the plant 4. Supervisor &
6. Intelligence 6. Nature of Supervision Co-workers
7. Education 5. Responsibility
8. Interest 6. Working conditions
9. Personality traits 7.Rewards &
Fringe benefits
1. Personal Factors:
Individual difference theory states that variability in job satisfaction is due to an individual’s
personal tendency across situations to enjoy what they do. Thus, there will be certain types of
people who will be generally satisfied (and motivated) regardless of the type of the job they do.
 Satisfaction in Life: If an individual is satisfied in his personal life he shows high job
satisfaction.
 Gender: In various countries it has been found that women workers are more satisfied with
their job than are men. In India, any distinct information on the subject is not available.
However, in Indian context it can be said that women’s pay is usually considered as an
additional source of income. So they have less financial needs and ambition.
 No of dependants: An earlier American study indicated that the more no of dependants one
has, the less satisfied he is with his job. In Indian studies also, research has revealed that
workers who have to support fewer dependants (one to four) tend to have higher job
satisfaction
 Age: Indian studies in this regard have to produce conflicting results. However, the
consensus of Indian studies is that job satisfaction tends to increase with age.
 Time on job: It has been observed that at starting there is a relatively higher job satisfaction.
This starts dropping between the fourth & sixth years. Than it rises again with greater length
of service on the job.
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 Intelligence / education: More the education or intelligence of the employee, more
dissatisfied he becomes if not looked after. In India as well as in other western countries,
there is a tendency for the more educated workers to be less satisfied.
 Interest: If the nature of the job is of interest to the employee, his satisfaction will increase.
 Personality traits: People having the same traits as required by the job, will be more
satisfied, ex. An introvert person will find it difficult to be in sales or marketing job.
2. Job Factors
 Type of work: The most important factor for job satisfaction is the “type of work”.
Employees who find their work interesting are more satisfied and motivated than employees
who do not enjoy their jobs. Therefore, employers should take innovative steps to make work
more interesting.
 Skill required: There are certain skills required for any particular job. When skill exists to a
considerable degree, it tends to become the first source of satisfaction to the employee. It has
been found that skilled workers have significantly higher job satisfaction than unskilled
workers. Skill gives a particular sense of pride in one’s job.
 Occupational Status: The occupational status is determined not only on the way the
individual employee regards the status of his job, but also on the way it is regarded by others
in the society. Occupations are usually found to arrange themselves in hierarchy according to
their relative status, prestige or values in any particular society.
 Geographical location: Geographical location of the workplace has been found to have
some bearing on satisfaction and dissatisfaction of workers. Workers in large cities are less
satisfied than those in smaller cities and towns. However, the cause of dissatisfaction or
satisfaction cannot be attributed to geography alone. It is inseparable from the working
condition levels of industrial development, the political, social and economic environment,
the worker’s characteristics and possibly other factors as well in the region
 Size of the plant: Size of an organization does not independently affect the employees. It
affects them along with management practices and various other factors. Larger
organizations tend to be more impersonal and formalized leading to a lesser sense of
participation, involvement, optimism and willingness to contribute. Smaller organizations
provide an opportunity of knowing each other better through more frequent and informal
contact .Thereby; it generates optimism, sense of involvement and willingness to contribute.
 Nature of Supervision: it could be of two types—
Employee centered Supervision Production centered supervision
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-- more satisfaction -- less satisfaction
3. Organizational factors:
There are many factors in which the employers can play a major role to increase job
satisfaction amongst workers. Such factors are:
 Salary or wages: In Indian workers, Adequate salary’ seems to be the most important job
factor. It can be thought of as a Hygiene factor’. Wages are rarely mentioned as governing
satisfaction. Wages have a great influence in job dissatisfaction.
 Job Security: Job security is a second important factor for job satisfaction. Through job
security is important for both employers to provide and employees to get, yet over – security
leads to fall in production.
 Opportunity for advancement: Opportunity for advancement is also highly ranked factor
for job satisfaction. This should not be interpreted as promotion of every worker.
Opportunity for advancement is more than promotion. It also means personal development &
growth and increase in responsibility. Individual merit should be rewarded with the chance to
advance , develop and grow in the organization
 Supervisor & co-workers: Some supervisors & co-workers can make jobs unbearable
whereas other can make it pleasurable. It is psychologically significant that the workmen
need a sympathetic supervision. This implies that workmen prefer a supervisor who
understand their problems, help in personal problems, does not interpreter work, is friendly
and grants favors.
 Responsibility: Responsibility is an important factor in job satisfaction which possibly gets
mixed up with factors like; opportunity for advancement, type of work, freedom, challenges
in job and so on. In many Indian studies managers have been found to have higher job
satisfaction than workers. This implies that the level of satisfaction increases with level of
responsibility
 Working conditions: Over the years working conditions have greatly improved in
industries. This can be one of the possible reasons why workers are mostly satisfied on this
purpose. Good working conditions include temperature, ventilation, safety, cleanliness &
conditions of machines and tools. Working conditions are very important factor and good
working conditions are highly desirable because they lead to greater physical comfort and
health.
 Rewards and fringe benefits: One factor related to both job satisfaction & employees’
motivation is the extent to which employees believe that they are being treated fairly. Our
levels of job satisfaction and motivation are related to how fairly we believe that we are
being treated in comparison to others. If we believe that we are being treated unfairly, we
attempt to change our believes or behaviours leading to dissatisfaction.
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Fringe benefits include company housing, canteen, dress, free tree, & snacks etc. The
importance of fringe benefits was not expressed in the past by Indian workers to the same
extent as in recent times.
MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION
The various methods of measuring job satisfaction are:
1. Personal interview: Personal interview is a good tool for measuring job satisfaction.
They are sometimes used along with the questionnaires. In these interviews, employees
discuss aspects of their jobs with supervisors or interviewers from the organization’s
human resources department.
2. Objective survey: These may be multiple choice questions true or false statements.
Such surveys do not give much chance to employees to express themselves in their own
ways.
3. Descriptive survey: In descriptive surveys employees write their response in words.
Descriptive surveys has detailed questions, ex., what do you think about company’s
promotion’s policies. In these type of questions employee’s have a greater degree of
expression in undirected questions.
4. Projective surveys: These are not used for general survey. They are very rarely used in
professional counseling of individuals, with special problems. These helps in studying
hidden personality of workers. some important projective tests are :
Rorschach Inkblot test, T.A.T. etc.
5 Job Description Questionnaire: It consists of a series of job-related adjectives and
statements that are rated by employees. It contains scale to measure five job factors –
pay, promotion, supervision, the nature of work and the characteristics of one’s co-
workers. It can be completed in 15 minutes and has been published in several languages.
Job Satisfaction and Performance / Productivity
It was traditionally said that high job satisfaction leads to improved productivity.
Stress Management
STRESS
Stress is the feeling that you experience when you believe you cannot cope
effectively with a situation. It indicates the pressures people feel in life. As a result of the
pressures people feel in life. As a result of the pressures, employees develop various symptoms
of stress that can harm their job performance. People who are stressed may become nervous, and
unable to relax. They may be uncooperative or use alcohol excessively. Stress also leads to
physical disorders because the internal body system changes to try to cope with stress. ex,
stomach, ulcer, heart diseases, kidney troubles etc.
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STRESSORS – Stressors are the events and situations in our environment that causes stress.
Stressors are found in the physical work environment, employee’s various life roles,
interpersonal relations and organizational activities and conditions. A person may react quite
differently to the same stressor at different points in time.
Definitions of stress:
1. “Stress denotes a general class of problems which deal with demands taxing the physiological,
social, and psychological systems and the responses of these systems.”
__Lazarus
2. “Job stress is a condition arising from the interaction of the people and their jobs, and
characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning.
__Newman
3. “Stress is a person’s adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological and
physical demands on him or her.”
Stressor creates stress when
S=P>R
i.e. Stress occurs when pressure is greater than resource ( S- stress, P-pressure, R- resource).
Stages of stress (General Adaptation Syndrome)
There are three stages of stress:
Alarm Stage
↓
Resistance Stage
↓
Exhaustion
1. Alarm Stage It is the immediate reaction to a stressor. When a person experiences a
shock or perceives a threat, he quickly releases hormones that help him to survive. These
hormones help us to run faster and fight harder. They increase heart rate and blood
pressure, delivering more oxygen and blood sugar to power important muscles. They
increase sweating in an effort to cool these muscles, and help them stay efficient. They
divert blood away from the skin to the core of or bodies, reducing blood loss if we are
damaged.
2. Resistance Stage In This stage the body activates various mechanisms and the level of
glucose and adrenaline increasing during this stage. It gives us more energy to overcome
the sources of stress. If sources of stress remains present people move into the exhaustion
stage.
3. Exhaustion If the stress has continued for some time, body’s resistance to the stress may
gradually be reduced or may collapse quickly. The immune system and the body’s ability
to resist disease may be almost totally eliminated. People who experience long-term
stress may succumb to heart attacks or severe infection due to their reduced immunity.
Types of Stress
Based on its nature, stress can be classified into two types:
i. Eustress or Positive Stress
Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix is
derived from the Greek eu meaning either “well” or “good”. When attached to the word
“stress”, it literally means “good stress”. Eustress accompanies achievement and
exhilaration. Examples of Eustress can be-
19

1. Meeting or engaging in a challenge.
2. Coming first in a race.
3. Getting a promotion at your job.
4. Watching a suspense or horror movie.
5. Love, marriage, or childbirth
6. The holidays.
7. Purchasing something, such as a new car.
ii. Distress or Negative stress
Distress is a negative stress which results when a
person is unable to completely adapt to stressors and results in various inappropriate
behaviours such aggression, passivity, insecurity, helplessness, desperation etc. People under
constant distress are more likely to become sick, mentally or physically.
Examples of distress are:
1. Difficult work environment.
2. Overwhelming sights and sounds.
3. Threat of personal injury
4. Work under constant pressure.
Job Stress
Definition: Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur
when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker.
Job stress is often confused with challenges, but these concepts are not the same. Challenges
energies us psychologically and physically, and it motivates us to learn new skills and master our
jobs. When a challenge is met, we feel relaxed and satisfied. But job stress is different- the
challenges has turned into job demands that cannot be met, Relaxation has turned to exhaustion,
and a sense of satisfaction has turned into feelings of stress.
Causes of Stress
We can divide the job stressors in four categories.
1. Extra-Organizational Stressors
2. Organisational Stressors
3. Group Stressors
4 .Individuals Stressors
1. Extra- organizational stressors are:
• Social and Technological changes
• Family problems
• Economic & financial conditions
• Race & class
• Residential & community conditions
2. Organizational Stressors are:
• High stress job
• Job role
• Poor working conditions
20

• Organisational politics
• Poor work relationships
• Technology
3. Group stressors are:
• Absence of support
• From group members
• Conflicts related to the group
4. Individual stressors are:
• Role conflict and ambiguity
• Locus of control
• Learned helplessness
• Emotional instability
• Cognitive dissonance
• Psychological hardiness
Consequences/ effects of stress
1. Individual consequences
 Behavioural
 Alcohol & drug abuse
 Violence
 Psychological
 Sleep disturbances
 depression
 Medical
2. Organisational consequences
 Decline in performance
 More absenteeism
 Less turnover
 Accident proneness
Stress Management:--
1. Individual coping strategies
 Physical exercise
 Relaxation
 Behavioural self-control
 Cognitive therapy
 Networking
2. Organizational coping strategies
 Supportive organizational climate
21

 Job redesign
 Organizational communication
 Counseling
 Stress control workshop and employee assistance programme
22

Organizational Culture
Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of
organization members and their behaviors. Members of an organization soon come to sense the
particular culture of an organization. Culture is one of those terms that are difficult to express
distinctly, but everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, the culture of a large, for-
profit corporation is quite different than that of a hospital which is quite different that that of a
university. You can tell the culture of an organization by looking at the arrangement of furniture,
what they brag about, what members wear, etc. -- similar to what you can use to get a feeling
about someone's personality.
Organisational culture is an idea in the field of Organisational studies and management which
describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values)
of an organisation. It has been defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are
shared by people and groups in an organisation and that control the way they interact with each
other.
Organizational culture refers to the general culture within a company or organization, and is
often also referred to as corporate culture, though that isn't the best description since a large non-
profit organization or charity could also have its own organizational culture even though they are
definitely not corporations. Here are some of the many definitions of organizational culture that
can be found.
Definitions:
Edgar Schein defines organizational culture as:
"A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid
and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in
relation to those problems".
Nature of Organization Culture
The culture of an organization may reflect in various forms adopted by the organization. These
could be:
 The physical infrastructure
 Routine behavior, language, ceremonies
 Gender equality, equity in payment
 Dominant values such as quality, efficiency and so on
 Philosophy that guides the organization’s policies towards it employees and customers
like ‘customer first’ and ‘customer is king’, and the manner in which employees deal
with customers.
23

Levels of Organization Culture
One comes across a number of elements in the organization which depict its culture.
Organizational culture can be viewed at three levels based on manifestations of the culture in
tangible and intangible forms. Fig. 1.2 identifies these levels.
Level 2: Validation of
Value in Physical and social
environment
Level 3: Environment
Assumptions about Human
Nature, Human
Relationships,
And Behavior
Level 1
Artifacts,
Technology,
Visible and
Audible
Figure 2: Levels of organizational culture
1 1. At Level one the organizational culture can be observed in the form of physical
objects, technology and other visible forms of behaviour like ceremonies and rituals.
Though the culture would be visible in various forms, it would be only at the superficial
level. For example, people may interact with one another but what the underlying
feelings are or whether there is understanding among them would require probing.
2
3 2. At Level Two there is greater awareness and internalization of cultural values. People
in the organization try solutions of a problem in ways which have been tried and tested
earlier. If the group is successful there will be shared perception of that ‘success’, leading
to cognitive changes turning perception into values and beliefs.
4
5 3. Level three represents a process of conversion. When the group repeatedly observes
that the method that was tried earlier works most of the time, it becomes the ‘preferred
solution’ and gets converted into underlying assumptions or dominant value orientation.
The conversion process has both advantages. The advantages are that the dominant value
orientation guides behaviour, however at the same time it may influence objective and
rational thinking.
These three levels range on a scale of superficial to deeply embed. As cultural symbols
get converted to share assumptions, they move from a superficial level to a real
internationalized level as shown in Figure:
24

Superficial Level
Cultural
Symbols
Shared
Behaviour
Cultural
Values
Shared
Assumptions
Deeply Embedded Level
Levels of organizational culture
Types of Organizational Culture
Organisational culture can vary in a number of ways. It is these variances that differentiate one
organization from the others. Some of the bases of the differentiation are presented below:
1 1. Strong vs. weak culture:
0 Organisational culture can be labeled as strong or weak based on sharedness of the core
values among organisational members and the degree of commitment the members have to
these core values. The higher the sharedness and commitment, the stronger the culture
increases the possibility of behaviour consistency amongst its members, while a weak culture
opens avenues for each one of the members showing concerns unique to them.
2
0 2. Soft vs. hard culture:
3 Soft work culture can emerge in an organization where the organization pursues multiple and
conflicting goals. In a soft culture the employees choose to pursue a few objectives which
serve personal or sectional interests. A typical example of soft culture can be found in a
number of public sector organizations in India where the management feels constrained to
take action against employees to maintain high productivity. The culture is welfare oriented;
people are held accountable for their mistakes but are not rewarded for good performance.
Consequently, the employees consider work to be less important than personal and social
obligations. Sinha (1990) has presented a case study of a public sector fertilizer company
which was established in an industrially backward rural area to promote employment
generation and industrial activity. Under pressure from local communities and the
government, the company succumbed to overstaffing, converting mechanized operations into
manual operations, payment of overtime, and poor discipline. This resulted in huge financial
losses (up to 60 percent of the capital) to the company.
4
5
6
25

7 3. Formal vs informal culture:
8 The work culture of an organization, to a large extent, is influenced by the formal
components of organizational culture. Roles, responsibilities, accountability, rules and
regulations are components of formal culture. They set the expectations that the organization
has from every member and indicates the consequences if these expectations are not fulfilled.
4. Authoritarian vs. Participative Culture:
The basic assumption of an authoritarian culture is that the leader knows what is good for the
organisation and he always acts in its interest.
Participative culture tends to emerge where most organisational members see themselves as
equal and take part in decision-making.
26

LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and
directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.
Alan Keith stated that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to
making something extraordinary happen."
Northouse defines — Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal.
Characteristics of a Leader
Listed below we've got a total of eight leadership characteristics that we believe help to define a
leader today
 Honesty - Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive behavior
will not inspire trust.
 Competent - Your actions should be based on reason and moral principles. Do not make
decisions based on childlike emotional desires or feelings.
 Forward-looking Set goals and have a vision of the future. The vision must be owned
throughout the organization. Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it.
They habitually pick priorities stemming from their basic values.
 Inspiring - Display confidence in all that you do. By showing endurance in mental,
physical, and spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights. Take
charge when necessary.
 Intelligent - Read, study, and seek challenging assignments.
 Fair-minded - Show fair treatment to all people. Prejudice is the enemy of justice.
Display empathy by being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of
others.
 Broad-minded - Seek out diversity.
 Courageous - Have the perseverance to accomplish a goal, regardless of the seemingly
insurmountable obstacles. Display a confident calmness when under stress.
 Straightforward - Use sound judgment to make good decisions at the right time.
 Imaginative - Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and
methods. Show creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to
problems. Be innovative!
 Fair evaluation of work
 Sufficient delegation of authority
 Fair treatment for all
 Availability to all employees
 Vision & Foresightedness
 Inner motivation
 Sense of responsibility
 Empathy
 Emotional balance
27

Final Thoughts on Leadership Characteristics
Leadership is much more complex than merely earning a high-status position in a company and
ordering people to do things. It is a participative journey that the leader must be willing to walk
with others.
It's a skill that's acquired over a lifetime and these characteristics are something we can
"practice" just about ever day of our life. Keep in mind that great leaders are not born, they are
made. And also keep in mind that great leaders are also not infallible.
But one thing that a great leader does very well is learn from their mistakes. Practice these
characteristics; avoid repeating the same mistake, and one day you'll no longer be wondering if
you are a leader - you'll know in your heart that you are a leader.
Importance of Leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to
achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.
1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies
and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the
work from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for
the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to
perform their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and
giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the
employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their
work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale
booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as
they work to achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient
work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should
be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and
should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on
humanitarian terms.
7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests
with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and
effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.
28

Theories of Leadership
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership
theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent
theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many
different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
1. "Great Man" Theories:
Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise
to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain
qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify
particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key
features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not
leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.
3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that
might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of
variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational
variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-
making.
5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.
Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental
qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through
teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input
of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making
process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.
29

7. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as "Transactional theories") focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and
punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful,
they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories (also known as "Transformational theories") focus upon the connections
formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by
helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are
focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her
potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.
30

Managerial Grid
Some leaders are very task-oriented; they simply want to get things done. Others are very
people-oriented; they want people to be happy. And others are a combination of the two.
A popular framework for thinking about a leader's 'task versus person' orientation was developed
by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in the early 1960s. Called the Managerial Grid, or
Leadership Grid, it plots the degree of task-centeredness versus person-centeredness and
identifies five combinations as distinct leadership styles.
The Managerial Grid is based on two behavioral dimensions:
• Concern for People - This is the degree to which a leader considers the needs of team
members, their interests, and areas of personal development when deciding how best to
accomplish a task
• Concern for Production - This is the degree to which a leader emphasizes concrete
objectives, organizational efficiency and high productivity when deciding how best to
accomplish a task.
Using the axis to plot leadership 'concerns for production' versus 'concerns for people', Blake and
Mouton defined the following five leadership styles:
1. Country Club Leadership – High People/Low Production
This style of leader is most concerned about the needs and feelings of members of his/her team.
These people operate under the assumption that as long as team members are happy and secure
31

then they will work hard. What tends to result is a work environment that is very relaxed and fun
but where production suffers due to lack of direction and control.
2. Produce or Perish Leadership - High Production/Low People
Also known as Authoritarian or Compliance Leaders, people in this category believe that
employees are simply a means to an end. Employee needs are always secondary to the need for
efficient and productive workplaces. This type of leader is very autocratic, has strict work rules,
policies, and procedures, and views punishment as the most effective means to motivate
employees.
3. Impoverished Leadership - Low Production/ Low People
This leader is mostly ineffective. He/she has neither a high regard for creating systems for
getting the job done, nor for creating a work environment that is satisfying and motivating. The
result is a place of disorganization, dissatisfaction and disharmony.
4. Middle-of-the-Road Leadership - Medium Production/Medium People
This style seems to be a balance of the two competing concerns. It may at first appear to
be an ideal compromise. Therein lies the problem, though: When you compromise, you
necessarily give away a bit of each concern so that neither production nor people needs
are fully met. Leaders who use this style settle for average performance and often
believe that this is the most anyone can expect.
5. Team Leadership - High Production/High People
According to the Blake Mouton model, this is the pinnacle of managerial style. These leaders
stress production needs and the needs of the people equally highly. The premise here is that
employees are involved in understanding organizational purpose and determining production
needs. When employees are committed to, and have a stake in the organization's success, their
needs and production needs coincide. This creates a team environment based on trust and
respect, which leads to high satisfaction and motivation and, as a result, high production.
Application of Managerial Grid
Being aware of the various approaches is the first step in understanding and improving how well
you perform as a manager. It is important to understand how you currently operate, so that you
can then identify ways of becoming competent in both realms.
Step One: Identify your leadership style.
• Think of some recent situations where you were the leader.
• For each of these situations, place yourself in the grid according to where you believe you
fit.
Step Two: Identify areas of improvement and develop your leadership skills
• Look at your current leadership method and critically analyze its effectiveness.
32

• Look at ways you can improve. Are you settling for 'middle of the road' because it is
easier than reaching for more?
• Identify ways to get the skills you need to reach the Team Leadership position. These
may include involving others in problem solving or improving how you communicate
with them, if you feel you are too task-oriented. Or it may mean becoming clearer about
scheduling or monitoring project progress if you tend to focus too much on people.
• Continually monitor your performance and watch for situations when you slip back into
bad old habits.
Step Three: Put the Grid in Context
It is important to recognize that the Team Leadership style isn't always the most effective
approach in every situation. While the benefits of democratic and participative management are
universally accepted, there are times that call for more attention in one area than another. If your
company is in the midst of a merger or some other significant change, it is often acceptable to
place a higher emphasis on people than on production. Likewise, when faced with an economic
hardship or physical risk, people concerns may be placed on the back burner, for the short-term
at least, to achieve high productivity and efficiency.
Comments: -
1. This is the only leadership theory that is being offered today to industry as a packaged
managerial development program. The package has been designed to improve managerial
effectiveness and organizational efficiency.
2. Claims have been made in terms of monetary benefits to the firms which have tried it.
3. The theory has been criticized for saying that only 9,9 style is superior to all other styles of
managements. The critics argue that how can 9,9 management style be appropriate for all
organizations as they may have different growth rates, labor relations, competition and
differentiating problems.
4. There is no evidence to confirm that once leaders are trained for 9, 9 style, they will not return
to their old style once they are back on the job.
33

Group Dynamics
Definition of Group:
According to Edgar Schein:
“A group is any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically
aware of one another, and perceive themselves to be a group.
According to Marrin E. Shaw:
“A group consists of two or more persons who interact with each other consciously for
the achievement of certain common objectives. The members of a group are mutually
interdependent and they are aware that they are part of a group.”
So, a group is basically a collection of individuals contributing to some common aim
under the direction of a leader, and who shares a sense of common identity. Groups also provide
Stimulus, Protection & other Psychological requirements to its members.
Characteristics of a Group:
1. Interaction
2. Awareness
3. Common Identity
4. Common Objective
Group Dynamics
According to Keith Davis:-
“A social process by which people interact face-to-face in small groups is called group
dynamics.”
Group dynamics is the study of groups, and also a general term for group processes.
Relevant to the fields of psychology, sociology, and communication studies, a group is two or
more individuals who are connected to each other by social relationships. Because they interact
and influence each other, groups develop a number of dynamic processes that separate them
from a random collection of individuals. These processes include norms, roles, relations,
development, need to belong, social influence, and effects on behavior.
Types of Groups:-
Groups can be classified on many bases. Some of which are: -
 Based on the size of group:
 Small Group
 Large Group
 Based on the Closeness of the membership:
 Primary Group
 Secondary Group
34

 Based on Permanency of Activities:
 Temporary Group
 Permanent Group
 Based on Formality:
 Formal group
 Informal group
 Some other groups:
 In – group
 Out – group
 Membership group
 Reference group
Why do groups form / Causes for formation of a group:
• Affiliation
• Identification
• Common Interests & Goals
• Emotional Support
• Personal characteristics
• Goal accomplishment
• Security
• Monotony
• Assignment
Why people join groups:
• Security
• Group Synergy
• Support & commitment
• Interpersonal needs
Stages of Group Development:
Tuckman identified 5 stages to the process:
5. Forming
6. Storming
7. Norming
8. Performing
9. Adjourning.
1. Forming concerns finding the situation the group faces and the types of behaviour and
interaction that will be appropriate Members test out attitudes and behaviour to
establish acceptability and agreed ground rules. A powerful leadership personality can
assist this anxious process
35

2. Storming is the stage where different opinions and styles emerge, creating possibilities
for competing sub-groups, leadership challenges and resistance to meeting task
requirements. Issues must be resolved at this stage in order to move on and develop.
3. Norming occurs when resistance is overcome and conflicts are resolved. Mutually
acceptable task and maintenance norms are established and members begin to internalize
them so building up cohesion. Group roles are clarified and the leader established.
Members begin to feel included. Recognition of the value of different contributions
grows and real performance begins.
4. Performing is the final stage when the group’s energy is available for effective task
completion.
5. Adjourning is when group disperses on completion of tasks.
36

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