2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1) Introduction 3
2) Need for high-rise buildings 4
3) Scope of high-rise buildings 6
4) Objectives 7
5) Advantages of high-rise buildings 8
6) Criteria for high-rise buildings 9
7) Design Consideration of
8) High-rise buildings 11
1) Architectural 12
2) Structural 14
3) Services 18
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1) Innovative technologies for high-rise buildings 27
2) Good Construction Practices for high-rise
buildings 31
3) Preventive Maintenance 32
4) Facility Management Guidelines 34
5) Statutory Clearances 35
6) Futuristic Contributions 40
7) Case Study 1: Aquaria Grande 43
8) Case Study 2: Skyville @ Dawson 49
3. INTRODUCTION
A high-rise building is defined as any tall, multi-storeyed
building over 60 feet (18.30m), or with six or more storeys.
High-rise buildings, particularly residential ones, have proved
to be beneficial in densely-populated cities where vacant plots
are almost impossible to find.
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SPR CITY, PERMABUR, CHENNAI
HOUSE OF HIRANANDANI, OMR, CHENNAI
4. 30-03-2023 4
NEED FOR HIGH-
RISE BUILDINGS
• High-rise buildings, particularly residential
ones, have proved to be beneficial in densely-
populated cities where vacant plots are almost
impossible to find.
• In contrast to low-rise blocks, bungalows, and
villas, high-rise apartment blocks can
accommodate more inhabitants per unit of
area of land and can thus decrease any costs
and issues with planning.
5. NEED FOR HIGH-
RISE BUILDINGS
• Majority of the population lives in cities and urban
areas, with many more billions expected to join
them within the next 20-25 years.
• With rising population density, land values rise
while land sizes shrink.
• Thus, height limits are being revised in
metropolitan cities to make maximum use of
vertical space for commercial and residential
growth.
(Source: Bertaud A., 2015, “The Spatial Distribution of Land Prices and
Densities: The model developed by economists”)
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LIMIT OF URBANIZATION (d) TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE COST OF LAND
DEVELOPMENT
6. They are commonly built for singular uses such as for residential or
commercial purposes (shopping malls, offices).
When combined with other types such as recreational, institutional,
or assembly, it creates a high-rise building with mixed uses,
further adding to the value of the property and surrounding
land.
High-rise buildings create opportunities for innovations
in design, technologies, amenities, structure, disaster
response (earthquakes, fires, etc.), sustainability, climate
responsiveness, etc.
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SINGLE USE
MIXED USE
SCOPE OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
7. OBJECTIVES
To achieve space efficiency.
To ensure Structural strength to resist heavy loads
(dead, live, wind, etc.) and disasters.
To achieve material and energy efficiency.
To achieve sustainability (eco-friendly, climate-
responsiveness, etc.).
Ensure comfort, safety, security, and universal
accessibility.
Ensure views, aesthetics, and acoustics.
Ensure ease of maintenance of the building.
It should stand the test of time.
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8. ADVANTAGES OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
Verticality + reduced footprint
Cost-effective in the long run
More Natural Light, Ventilation, and Fresh Air
Less Noise & congestion
Structural strength to resist heavy loads (dead, live, wind,
etc.) and disasters, with proper design.
Safety & Security
Feel of exclusive living
Potential for several people and families, businesses, and
amenities to be nearby.
Can be single or mixed-use
Design flexibility to accommodate for future changes in use.
Potential for energy efficiency, and sustainability with
integration with the natural environment
Aesthetics
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9. CRITERIA FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
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Site assessment & alignment with local & national
codes & regulations.
Minimum road width of adjoining/access road
to site: 12 m
Minimum extent of the site for constructing
multi-storeyed buildings: 1200 sq.m.
(Source: TNCDBR, 2019)
The efficiency concerning the environment,
energy, materials, cost, time, and space
70-75% net-to-gross floor area ratio is
appropriate for space efficiency.
Efficient circulation: vertical transportation
(staircases, elevators); Design for safety,
security, and accessibility.
10. Integration of services and structures as per NBC
2016: stairs & elevators, electrical, telecommunications,
water supply & management, waste & sewage disposal
systems, HVAC, and fire protection & life safety.
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Architectural & structural integrity for utmost safety to
prevent disasters.
CRITERIA FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
12. ARCHITECTURAL:
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Tall buildings should have a
positive relationship with
surrounding features and
buildings without hindering them.
The architectural quality of the
building, including its scale, form,
elevation, etc., is more important
the higher up it is.
It creates opportunities to offer
improved accessibility while opening
up views and acting as a landmark.
Tall buildings can set exemplary
standards in design because of
their high profile and local
impact.
Tall buildings are expensive to
build, but it is extremely
important not to dilute the
design quality throughout the
process of procurement, design
and construction.
13. 30-03-2023 13
The development should interact
with and contribute positively to
its street-level surroundings.
Interacting with the local
community for advice and
feedback will also be helpful for the
design process.
The effect of a tall building on
the local microclimate should not
be underestimated, along with its
resulting shadows or its night-
time appearance.
Different cities have different
demands for high-rise developers.
Always check the local bye-laws
and building regulations before
designs are finalised.
Tall building proposals must
address their effect on historic
buildings, sites and
landscapes in the vicinity.
ARCHITECTURAL:
17. SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
CIRCULATION:
It is influenced by several factors such as floor area, typology,
building design, and occupancy.
The accessibility/universal design guidelines, local development
regulations and the National Building Code are also factors
influencing the design of vertical transport in a building.
Stairs (regular staircase, fire staircase)
Ramps (vehicle access, disabled pedestrians access)
Elevators/lifts (passenger, cargo/service, fire)
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PARTS OF A RAMP ELEVATOR SHAFT PLAN
STAIRCASE PLAN
18. ELECTRICAL:
Factors which are considered in the
design of a distribution system
include the following:
• Type of structure
• Present utilization and future
needs
• Projected life of the structure
• Flexibility of the structure
• Load requirements
• Location of service entrance and
load equipment
• Switchgear, distribution equipment
and panels
• Type of installation methods used
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ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION TO CONSUMERS
ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION FROM SUBSTATION TO RESIDENTS
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
19. A substation is required when the total floor area of the buildings (excluding stilt and basement) exceeds 30,000 square metres or the power load
exceeds 5 Mega Volt Amp (MVA) (Source: TNERC/DQA-28 dated 2+1 2-2020).
Each distribution substation should have its own DG Backup so that in case of mains power failure local DG sets are available as a backup as per the
normal practice.
For all buildings above 15 m in height, an independent and ventilated meter (service) room is required on the ground floor with direct access from
outside.
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ELECTRICITY SUBSTATION BACKUP GENERATOR
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
ELECTRIC METER ROOM
20. Emergency power supply
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TYPICAL LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
Lightning arresters should be provided for all high-rise buildings for
lightning protection. (As per codes IS 2309 (1989), 11.5 of part 8
“BUILDING SERVICES”, section 2 of the National Building Code, 2019:
volume 2)
Aviation Obstruction Lights
22. SEWAGE
TREATMENT
PLANT
SURPLUS
TREATED
WATER
STORM WATER
DRAIN
WC CISTERNS
IRRIGATION
PLUMBING – SEWERAGE & DRAINAGE:
• Provisions should be made for an on-site water treatment plant (WTP) and
sewage treatment plant (STP) to treat greywater and soil water from
the premises.
• In areas where the sewage system provided by the Local body concerned
is not available and where the number of dwelling units exceeds 50 nos.
or 2500 sq.m. of commercial area, a sewage treatment plant shall be
provided and maintained for the disposal of the sewage within the
site itself as per the designs approved by such other Technical agencies
as Government may empanel from time to time.
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SULLAGE WATER PROCESS
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
WATER TREATMENT PLANT
SULLAGE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
23. FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION SYSTEMS/EQUIPMENT (AS PER NBC 2016):
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SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS (FOR FIRE AND/OR SMOKE, MANUAL AND
AUTOMATIC DETECTION)
FIRE HYDRANT/RISER SYSTEM
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
(WATER, CO2, SAND, ETC.)
FIRE PUMP
SMOKE CONTROL/PRESSURE
SYSTEMS
FIRE COMMAND CENTER
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
EMERGENCY
SIGNAGE
24. 30-03-2023 24
TYPICAL FIRE FIGHTING SHAFT
STAIRWELL OPENING RESTRICTIONS
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
FIRE SHAFT AND STAIRCASE (AS PER NBC 2016):
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BUILDING SECTION SHOWING REFUGE FLOORS
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
REFUGE AREAS:
• One refuge floor every 15m after one at/ immediately after 24m.
• For apartment buildings height < 60m, with balconies: need
not have a refuge area.
• Refuge areas are required for apartment buildings without
balconies.
• For apartment buildings height ≥ 60m, one refuge floor every
30m after one at/ immediately after 60m.
0m GL
24m
39m
54m
70m
26. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
In residential or predominantly residential developments with dwelling units exceeding 100 in number, the
design should include waste management infrastructure and at least a closed non-polluting storage
provision for solid waste storage within the premises.
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REFUSE CHUTE DIAGRAM
SERVICES: (SOURCE: NBC 2016, TNCDBR 2019)
27. EARTHQUAKE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION LARGE-SPAN FLOOR SLAB SYSTEMS
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BASE ISOLATION SYSTEM
DOVETAIL COMPOSITE DECK DEEP-RIBBED COMPOSITE DECK
COMPOSITE JOIST SLAB
• Long-span composite floor systems
are said to blend the speed and
versatility of steel with the
performance and durability of
concrete.
• These systems can contribute to a
building that features gained
finished ceiling height, efficient MEP
integration and versatile, column-
free environments.
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
28. MODERN FLOOR SYSTEMS INNOVATIVE LOAD-FRAME SYSTEMS
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SLIMDEK FLOOR SYSTEM WITH SERVICE DUCT ATTACHMENTS
PRE-STRESSED HOLLOW-CORE SLABS (CAN BE PRE-CAST OFF SITE)
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
30. INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS USE OF INNOVATIVE/ADVANCED MATERIALS
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LOW-E GLASS/GLAZING
SELF HEALING CEMENT
HOLLOW CLAY BRICKS
CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER
31. GOOD CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
CONCRETE WORK RCC FRAMEWORK:
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RCC ROOF SLAB: PLASTERING:
CONCRETE & TERRAZZO FLOOR:
PACE OF CONSTRUCTION:
RCC WORK IN EXPOSED CONDITIONS:
WALL FINISHING:
32. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
What is preventive maintenance and how to use it effectively?
Preventive maintenance (or preventative maintenance) is maintenance
that is regularly and routinely performed on physical assets to reduce the
chances of equipment failure and unplanned machine downtime.
Why is preventive maintenance important?
Preventive maintenance is important because it lays the foundation for
successful facility management. Preventive maintenance keeps
equipment and assets running efficiently, maintains a high safety level for
your employees, and helps you avoid large and costly repairs down the
road.
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33. ESSENTIAL FACILITIES & SERVICES
• Building internal & external conditions
• Vertical transportation systems
• Water supply systems
• Drainage & sewage systems
• Power supply systems
• Security systems
• Fire protection systems & equipment
• Cleaning services
• Ventilation systems
• Heating systems
• Air conditioning systems
VALUE-ADDED FACILITIES & SERVICES
• Landscaping & gardening
• Façade care
• Swimming pool
• Sport & recreational facilities
• Social facilities
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FACILITIES FOR MAINTENANCE
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
34. FACILITY MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
1. When creating a schedule of facilities maintenance obligations,
agencies should include a list of all the facilities maintenance
obligations required, who is responsible for undertaking such
obligations and when the obligations need to be met.
2. Facilities managers need to ensure that they are familiar with the
legislation and regulations which govern the operation of their property
portfolio. Awareness of and compliance with relevant legislation and
regulations is essential.
3. The health and safety of staff and visitors (including contractors and
subcontractors working on site) are of paramount importance.
4. It is also important for facilities managers to be aware of the health and
safety, employment and training standards of all contractors, ensuring
that their subcontractors are also compliant with relevant legislation
and procedures. It is recommended that contractors are performance
managed against key performance indicators.
5. Agencies should not take on a contractor who has a poor health and
safety record. If an agency does and there is a serious issue on-site,
the agency may be held responsible for its poor performance.
6. Agencies should ensure that all contractors identify possible risks
before commencing work and identify and implement measures that
will mitigate the identified risks.
7. Agencies should ensure that contractors understand the need to report
any accident or dangerous incident to enable the appropriate
preventative actions to be undertaken.
8. Agencies should investigate all accidents that occur on their premises
and expect full cooperation from contractors and their employees to
establish the cause of such accidents and the remedial actions
necessary to prevent a recurrence.
9. Any accidents should be recorded in a register. The register should
document details of the accident, how the accident was dealt with and
the steps taken to prevent such accidents from occurring in the future.
10.Note that criminal checks/security clearances may be required before
contractors and sub-contractors can undertake work on particular
sites. The facilities staff are responsible for ensuring such clearances
are in place before providing access to such sites.
11.All assets (e.g. security systems) should be monitored and reviewed
regularly to minimise having to act reactively when an asset fails to
operate as it should.
12.The approach taken to maintain assets should be appropriate to the
criticality of the assets.
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35. STATUTORY CLEARANCES
APPROVAL CLEARANCE TYPE: PURPOSE: APPROVING AUTHORITY:
Ownership certificate/extract Ownership of land/plot CMDA/Taluk office
Non-encumbrance certificate Assurance that the property is free from any legal or
monetary liability such as mortgages or un-cleared loans.
Local Registration/Revenue department
Change in land use approval * To change land use designation of the land/plot from
agricultural to non-agricultural
CMDA
Approval of demolition of existing structure * Approval of demolition of existing structures on site Municipal Corporation (Eg.: Corporation of
Chennai)
NOC for height clearance from AAI * Height/building clearance for any buildings/structures
planned within 20km of an air-strip/air funnel.
AAI – Airports Authority of India
Directorate of Air Traffic Management
STAGE 1: PROJECT FEASIBILITY/PRE-SANCTION
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* : if required/applicable
36. STATUTORY CLEARANCES
APPROVAL CLEARANCE TYPE: PURPOSE: APPROVING AUTHORITY:
Planning permits & Local body approvals Under the provisions of Local Building Byelaws, Master plan and
Local Body Acts.
Local Planning Authority (Eg.: CMDA,
DTCP)
NOC from road owning agency/road access
plan approval
When cutting of footpath or road or service lane or Right of way
(ROW) road access is involved.
CMDA/NHAI/PWD
NOC from traffic police * When the proposal involves disruption of general traffic movement/
circulation pattern temporarily or permanently during and after the
construction of the project.
Chennai Traffic Police HQ
Fire fighting scheme approval/Fire Safety
certificate
For proposals at the planning stage as stipulated in the local building
bye-laws and NBC.
Chief Fire Officer – TN Dept. of Fire &
Rescue Services
Environmental Clearance For all building/construction projects having a built-up area of more
than 20, 000 sq.m., area development projects/ townships covering
an area of more than 50 hectares or a built-up area of more than 1,
50,000 sq.m.
Ministry of Environment & Forests
NOC and consent/approval from PCB,
CMWSSB
For scrutiny and approval of DG sets, STPs & WTPs, drainage &
sewerage plans, rainwater harvesting systems, groundwater
harvesting (borewell sets, etc.) as per detailed drawings &
calculations
TNPCB – Tamil Nadu Pollution Control
Board
Local water supply & sewerage board
(Eg.: CMWSSB – Chennai Metropolitan
Water Supply & Sewerage Board)
NOC and consent/approval from TNEB For approval and set up of electric schemes & substations as per
drawings
TNEB – Tamil Nadu Electricity Board
STAGE 2: PROJECT PLANNING
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* : if required/applicable
37. STATUTORY CLEARANCES
APPROVAL CLEARANCE TYPE: PURPOSE: APPROVING AUTHORITY:
Intimation of Disapproval (IoD) * The disapproval may be either due to unviable site
condition/land use zone/legal discrepancies and/or
violation of development regulation (DCR) in the
submitted building plans.
Local Planning Authority/Municipal Corporation (Eg.:
CMDA)
Local body approvals/Building permit Under the provisions of Local Building Byelaws, Master
plan and Local Body Acts.
Local Planning Authority (Eg.: CMDA, DTCP)
Commencement certificate Certificate to begin construction on property Local Planning Authority/Municipal Corporation (Eg.:
CMDA)
NOC/Permission for borewell setup Registration & consent for borewell setup to draw
ground water
CGWA – Central Ground Water Authority
Approval/NOC for power distribution TNEB
Approval/NOC for water supply CMWSSB
Hoarding approval Display of details regarding construction/project NHAI/PWD/Land owning agency
STAGE 3: CONSTRUCTION/BUILDING PERMIT
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38. STATUTORY CLEARANCES
APPROVAL CLEARANCE TYPE: PURPOSE: APPROVING AUTHORITY:
NOC/Operation license from lift inspector Approval for installation of lifts/escalators (on basis of
completion certificate & provisional occupancy
certificate)
CEA/TNEB
Registration of Residents’ Welfare
Association (RWA)
Association to be registered before occupancy
certificate is given.
District Registrar/Revenue department
Completion certificate Certification of completion of the project as per
drawings and local rules & regulations
CMDA
Occupancy Certificate Certification of the suitability of occupancy of the
project as per drawings and local rules & regulations
CMDA
Permanent water & sewerage connection (On basis of completion certificate & provisional
occupancy certificate)
CMWSSB
Permanent power supply (On basis of completion certificate & provisional
occupancy certificate)
TNEB
STAGE 4: POST-CONSTRUCTION/COMPLETION/OCCUPANCY
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39. STATUTORY CLEARANCES
APPROVAL CLEARANCE TYPE: PURPOSE: APPROVING AUTHORITY:
NOC for height clearance from IAF * Building clearance for any buildings/structures planned
within 20km of an ARP (Aerodrome Reference Point)
Command HQ (CATCO) – Delhi & nearest Air Force
Station (Eg.: Chennai - Tambaram)
NOC for from LMA * Any construction within 10m from outer walls of
defence establishment/installation
LMA – Local Military Authority/Barracks
NOC for from CRZ * Any construction close to the coast/high tide line of a
river, creek, etc.
CRZA – Coastal Regulation Authority
NOC from Monument Authority/ASI * When the site is within a 300m radius from the
declared boundary of any monument protected under
the Ancient Monument Act and is under ASI control.
ASI – Archaeological Survey of India
Approval from Forest Department * When there is a proposal for tree cutting/felling and
transplantation at the site.
Tamil Nadu Forest Department
NOC from Railway authority * When the project site is along the railway corridor &
within 30m from its boundary (minimum clearance of
3m from railway boundary to nearest edge of the
building).
Local railway authority (Eg.: Southern Railways HQ,
Chennai)
OPTIONAL CLEARANCES
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* : if required/applicable
42. SMART BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS NEW FAÇADE TECHNOLOGIES
(VENTILATED/DOUBLE SKIN FACADE, ACTIVE
FACADE, GREEN FACADES, ETC.)
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VENTILATED/DOUBLE-SKIN FACADE GREEN FAÇADE SYSTEMS
FUTURISTIC CONTRIBUTIONS
43. CASE STUDY 1 – AQUARIA GRANDE
• ARCHITECT: James Law
• CLIENT: Wadhwa Group
• SITE AREA: 13,680 sq.m.
• GROSS FLOOR AREA: 30,500 sq.m.
• HEIGHT: 164 m
• FLOORS: 42 Storeys
• LIFTS: 8
• PROGRAM: Residential Housing
• STATUS: Constructed - 2013
• RESIDENTIAL UNITS: 202
• LOCATION: Borivali West, Mumbai
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INTRODUCTION
44. MASTER PLAN • Building is oriented in an east-west direction to
catch prevailing sea breezes and to open up the
best views of the city.
• The site is designed in such a way that the
enclosure of the two towers traps maximum winds
from the west to the east.
• 2 Basements + 3 Level Podiums
• Super Structure :
Wing A, B: Stilt + 32 upper floors with 180
flats
Wing C as Club House
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45. AMENITIES • LANDSCAPE: Landscape Garden
• FITNESS: Swimming Pool, Gymnasium
• RECREATION: Club House
• OUTDOOR GAMES: Play Area, Badminton Court
• HEALTH FACILITIES: Jacuzzi Steam Sauna
• CONVENIENCE: 24Hr. Backup Electricity
• SAFETY & SECURITY: Gated Community, Security
• Deck in each apartment has a panoramic view of
National park & Gorai Beach.
• Ample Natural light with Cross Ventilation.
• Column-less and Beam-less Apartments.
• 12 ft Floor to Floor Height.
• Complete Glass Facade Structure.
• CCTV with Modern Security Systems.
• Video Door Phone with Intercom Facility.
• Provision of Servants Room and Toilet in each
apartment.
• Garbage Chute in each tower
• Emergency power backup for all common areas.
• Jacuzzi Pool in each apartment.
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46. • No. of staircases/wing: 2 (2m wide)
• No. of lifts/wing: 3 passengers lift & 1 service lift
• Refuge Floors: 5th, 11th, 17th, 23rd, and 29th
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SERVICES
50. MASTER PLAN
• The buildings are 100% north-south facing and more
than 70% of the dwelling units enjoy true cross
ventilation.
• Sky gardens are created on the 3rd, 14th, 25th, and
36th storeys of the tower blocks.
• All apartments are naturally ventilated and due to
the open, airy design, a substantial proportion of
units have not installed air-conditioning.
• Photovoltaics on the roof power the common
facilities. The design is fully precast and
prefabricated, reducing waste and errors on site.
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52. • The central innovation is the public, external and shared
spaces interwoven through the cluster of towers from the
ground to the roof.
• The building’s 960 units are divided up into smaller “Sky
Villages” or 3 blocks of 4 units each, which share a naturally
ventilated community terrace and garden.
• The Sky Villages, Rooftop Penthouse, Urban Plaza, and
social facilities, help foster community spirit.
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53. 30-03-2023 53
UNIT PLANS
• The design offers residents 3
plan variations for each type of
unit.
• Flexible Layouts are based on
column-free, beam-free
apartment spaces.
• Thereby eliminating waste and
making allowance for diverse
family sizes and lifestyles (e.g.
home office/loft-living) and
future flexibility.
55. 30-03-2023 55
SUN PATH CONTEXT OF PROJECT
BIO-SWALE USED IN PROJECT
SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES A sustainable environment is achieved by utilising good passive design,
a variety of foliage, and on-site renewable energy, creating the potential
to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions.
Hinweis der Redaktion
The point d shows the limit of urbanization, is at the distance x where the price of urban land equals the price of agricultural land. If neither of these prices are distorted, this distance, and by extension the entire built-up area of the city, could be considered optimal. In other words, this distance and built-up area would maximize the utility of urban dwellers and firms as well as the farmers cultivating land at the edge of cities. However, if one or both prices were distorted, the point d would no longer represent the optimal limit of urbanization.
The term ‘space efficiency’ can be described as the ratio of Net Floor Area Over Gross Floor Area. Taking the codes and regulations into consideration, to secure the maximum return for the investor, building floors should provide sufficient space for functional operations; that is, high space efficiency.
Limit state design of the structure: This approach aims to ensure that all structures and their constituent components are designed to resist the worst loads and deformations that can occur during construction and throughout its lifetime.
Loading forces: The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces that will be sustained during construction and the expected life of the structure. These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building, and its location.
Strength and stability: The primary requirement of the ultimate limit state design procedure is that the structure has adequate strength to resist and remain stable under the worst probable loads during its lifetime.
Stiffness: The lateral stiffness is a major consideration in the design of a tall building. Under the ultimate limit state, the lateral deflections must be limited to prevent swaying force to be large enough to precipitate collapse. In addition, these deflections should not affect elevator rails, doors, or glass partitions, and should not cause discomfort to the occupants and sensitive equipment. This is one of the major differences between tall buildings and low-rise buildings.
Erection process and speed: The speed of erections is a vital factor in obtaining a return on investment by minimizing the cost of interest payments on the large capital costs involved. Careful planning and management of the construction sequence become essential.
Sequential loading: For dead loads, the construction sequence should be considered to be the worst case. It is usual to shore the freshly placed floor upon several previously cast floors. The construction loads on the supporting floors due to the weight of wet concrete and its formwork will greatly exceed loads of normal service conditions. These loads must be calculated considering the sequence of construction and the rate of erection.
Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects: In tall buildings, the cumulative vertical movements due to creep and shrinkage may cause distress in the structure and induce forces into horizontal elements, especially in the upper regions of the building.
Aggregates play an important role in both creep and shrinkage. A well-graded, coarser aggregate with a low void content decreases the effects of creep and shrinkage. Also, hard, dense aggregates that are not absorptive and with a high modulus of elasticity are desirable for low shrinkage and creep rates.
Buildings subjected to large temperature variations between their external faces and the internal core will experience induced stresses in the members connecting both.
Fire: The characteristic feature of a fire such as temperature and duration, can be estimated from a knowledge of the important parameters involved, such as the quality and nature of the combustible material present, the possibility and extent of ventilation, etc.
Knowledge of the temperature gradient across the member, and the degree of restraint afforded by the supports and surrounding structure, enables the stress in the member to be evaluated.
Common fire prevention tactics include the use of fire-resistant materials for construction and use of sprinkler systems, smoke detectors, etc.
Soil-structure interaction: Soil-structure interaction involves both static and dynamic behaviour. Seismic forces may develop excessive hydrostatic pressures, causing liquefaction of the soil. These types of conditions must be considered and avoided through thorough analysis.
Effect of foundation settlement: The gravity and lateral forces on the structure will be transmitted to the earth through the foundation system. Because of its height, a tall building’s columns may be very heavy.
In areas with bedrock, appropriate foundations can be shallow foundations, drilled shafts, or deep basements. In areas with poor soil conditions, differential settlements must be avoided.
A typical solution is the use of a mat (or raft) foundation, where the weight of soil equals a significant portion of the gross building weight.
Deep foundations are used when adequate soil capacity is not available close to the surface and loads must be transferred to firm layers substantially below the ground surface.
The common deep foundation systems for buildings are caissons and piles. They are classified by the method of boring: by “displacement” and “replacement” of soil. The big difference is that the caissons are of greater diameters (80 cm) compared to the piles.
Stairs: In buildings that are categorised as high-rises, a minimum of two staircases are compulsory (NBC 2019).
For a building of more than 24 m in height, access to the main staircase shall be through a lobby with a double door of a 1-hour fire rating. One of the doors will be fixed to the wall of the staircase.
The main staircase and fire escape staircase shall be continuous from the ground floor to the terrace level.
All staircases shall terminate at the level of exit discharge. The access to the basement shall be by a separate staircase.
No electrical shafts/AC ducts or gas pipe etc. shall pass through the staircase. The lift shall not open on the staircase landing.
Ramps
Elevators/lifts (passenger, cargo/service, fire): The sizes & capacities depend on the floor area, typology and building occupancy.
All lifts shall be connected to a backup power supply. The shafts should be well lit.
The sizes, capacities, and types of lifts, shafts, and machine rooms are determined by the occupancy as stated by Table 12 in part 8, section 5 of the National Building Code, 2019 (volume 2). The aforementioned guidelines are to be strictly followed.
Fireman lifts: The number of required fireman’s lifts and their locations in a building will vary depending on the size, design, and complexity of the building.
Some considerations are as follows:
1) There shall be at least one fireman’s lift per building.
2) If there are multiple wings in the building, there shall be at least one fireman’s lift per wing.
3) If there are multiple banks of lifts in the building there shall be at least one fireman’s lift per bank of lifts.
Factors which are considered in the design of a distribution system include the following:
Type of structure
Present utilization and future needs
Projected life of the structure
Flexibility of the structure
Load requirements
Location of service entrance and load equipment
Switchgear, distribution equipment and panels
Type of installation methods used
A substation is required when the total floor area of the buildings (excluding stilt and basement) exceeds 30,000 square metres or the power load exceeds 5 Mega Volt Amp (MVA) (Source: TNERC/DQA-28 dated 2+1 2-2020).
Each distribution substation should have its own DG Backup so that in case of mains power failure local DG sets are available as a backup as per the normal practice.
For all buildings above 15 m in height, the provision shall be made for an independent and ventilated meter (service) room, on the ground floor with direct access from outside for termination of electric supply from the licensee’s service and alternative supply cables. The door/doors provided for the service room shall have a fire resistance of not less than two hours.
Emergency power supply:
Stairways, corridors, and emergency signage lighting
Water pumps and fire pumps
elevators during emergencies
Required maintenance facilities such as meter rooms, emergency lights, server rooms, pump rooms, plant rooms, shafts and ducts, etc.
Terrace floors should be well lit.
Aviation Obstruction Lights: High-rise buildings and structures such as chimneys and towers are potential hazards to aircraft. The provision of aviation obstacle lights (AOLs) on tall buildings/structures is intended to reduce hazards to aircraft by indicating their presence. AOLs shall be provided on buildings of different heights as per the requirements prescribed in Annex 14 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Volume 1 Aerodrome Design and Operations, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Lightning arresters should be provided for all high-rise buildings for lightning protection. (As per codes IS 2309 (1989), 11.5 of part 8 “BUILDING SERVICES”, section 2 of the National Building Code, 2019: volume 2)
PLUMBING – WATER SUPPLY:
Water supply capacities are dependent on the typology and occupancy of the building. Water supply is required for the following:
Domestic usage (cooking, drinking, cleaning, flushing)
Maintenance
Fire protection
Water distribution is accomplished by providing down-take pipes in the shaft from the terrace ring mains.
There are 4 types of water supply systems for high-rise buildings:
Direct pumping system: With a direct pumping system, water is pumped directly into the distribution system without the aid of any overhead tank, except for flushing purposes.
Direct supply system: The most basic type of system, this system is adopted when adequate pressure can be available round the clock on the topmost floor through the city’s main power supply (normally not available above two or three floors).
Overhead Tank distribution: The overhead tank setup allows gravity to do the work of bringing the water down and ensuring sufficient pressure. The system comprises pumping water to one or more overhead tanks placed at the top most location of the hydraulic zone.
Hydro-pneumatic system/pressurized water supply: With a hydro-pneumatic system, an air-tight pressure vessel is installed on the line to regulate the operation of the pumps. The vessel capacity is based on the cut-in and cut-out pressure of the pumping system, depending on allowable start/stops of the pumping system.
In high-rise buildings, the pipe shafts may have to be within the building envelope with easy provision for access panels and doors planned in advance. All pipe shafts shall be plastered before any pipes are installed in the shaft.
Capacity of on-site tanks and plants is dependent on occupancy of the building.
It is recommended to have 1 overhead tank and 2 underground sumps, with one UG sump designated for fire fighting with a holding capacity of 10000-50000 litres.
FIRE PROTECTION & PREVENTION (AS PER NBC 2016):
As per National Building Code, all high-rise buildings must have smoke detectors, PA systems, sprinklers, first aid, fire extinguishers, fire pumps, riser systems, escape routes, smoke control systems, fireman lifts, service shaft enclosures, compartmentation, certified electrical system, signage, and adequate water supply, among others.
Emergency power supplying distribution system for the critical functioning of fire and life safety systems and equipment shall be planned for efficient and reliable power and control supply to the following systems and equipment where provided:
Fire pumps.
Pressurization and smoke venting; including its ancillary systems such as dampers and actuators.
Fireman’s lifts (including all lifts).
Emergency & exit signage lighting.
Fire alarm system.
Public address (PA) system (relating to emergency voice evacuation and annunciation).
Lighting in the fire command centre and security room.
Fire safety, detection and extinguishing systems: All buildings in their design and construction shall contribute to and ensure individually and collectively the safety of life from fire, smoke, fumes and also panic arising from these or similar other causes.
One firefighting shaft shall be planned for each residential building/tower. The firefighting shaft shall necessarily have connectivity directly to the exit discharge or through the exit passageway (having 120 min fire resistance walls) to the exit discharge.
Air circulation system may be designed to extract smoke in event of a fire, to assist in the fire fighting operation and introduce fresh air to pressurize escape routes.
Staircase and fire lift lobby of a firefighting shaft shall be smoke controlled as per 4.4.2.5 and Table 6 of the NBC.
In the case of high-rise apartments, of the minimum exits as specified in 4.4.2.4.3.1 of the NBC, the naturally ventilated exit staircases may not require the provision of a fire door. However, a fire door shall be provided for all other staircases and pressurized staircases.
Fire detection and alarm systems in buildings shall be so planned and programmed to enable operations of various systems and equipment to facilitate requirements leading to life safety, compartmentation and fire protection.
A high-rise building during construction shall be provided with the following fire protection measures, which shall be maintained in good working condition at all times:
Dry riser of a minimum 100 mm diameter pipe with hydrant outlets on the floors constructed with a fire service inlet to boost the water in the dry riser and maintenance should be per good practice.
Drums of 2000 litre capacity filled with water with two fire buckets on each floor;
A water storage tank of a minimum 20000-litre capacity, which may be used for other construction purposes also.
Any provided basement shall have at least 2 exits.
The maximum travel distance between two staircases or egress points shall be no more than 22.5m.
In a building of such size, arrangement or occupancy that a fire may not itself provide adequate warning to occupants, automatic fire detecting and alarming facilities shall be provided where necessary to warn occupants of the existence of fires, so that they may escape, or to facilitate the orderly conduct of fire exit drills.
Refuge area(s) shall be provided at/or immediately above 24 m and thereafter at every 15 m or so. The refuge area provided shall be planned to accommodate the occupants of two consecutive floors by considering an area of 0.3 m2 per person for the calculated number of occupants. Entire refuge areas shall be provided with sprinklers.
Refuge areas shall connect to the firefighting shaft (comprising the fireman’s lift, lobby and staircase) without having the occupants return to the building spaces through which travel to the area of refuge occurred.
The refuge area shall always be kept clear. No storage of combustible products and materials, electrical and mechanical equipment, etc shall be allowed in such areas.
The refuge area shall be provided on the periphery of the floor and open to air at least on one side protected with suitable railings.
High-rise apartment buildings with apartments having balconies, need not be provided with a refuge area; however, apartment buildings without balconies shall provide a refuge area as given above. Refuge areas for apartment buildings of height above 60 m while having balconies shall be provided at 60 m and thereafter at every 30 m.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
The basic stages of the municipal solid waste management system include the following:
Waste sorting at source, collection and transportation;
Resource recovery through centralized sorting and recycling, and waste processing; and
Waste transformation without recovery.
It is preferable to have a coloured-bin system for sorting based on the usage of the facility and the types of waste likely to be generated in the facility (such as red, green, blue, and yellow).
In residential or predominantly residential developments with dwelling units exceeding 100 in number, the design should include waste management infrastructure and at least a closed non-polluting storage provision for solid waste storage within the premises preferably with direct access from the abutting road shall be provided so that the local body can collect this stored waste from it.
Refuse chute: It facilitates total building garbage collection at one single point and provides separate collection for dry and wet garbage.
Refuse Collection Chamber: The collection chamber may be located on the ground floor or basement level, provided an appropriate arrangement is made for the drainage of the collection pit by gravity flow with appropriate ramp access and satisfactory ventilation.
The height of the collection chamber and vertical clearance under the bottom level of the garbage chute shall be such that the garbage trolley can be conveniently placed.
The collection chamber shall be provided with an appropriate shutter to prevent access to scavenging animals like cattle, dogs, cats and rats.
Dumb-Waiter or Service Lift: In high-rise buildings with more than 5 storeys, electrically operated dumb-waiters may be used for carrying domestic garbage in packets or closed containers.
Concrete work:
In reinforced concrete members such as cantilever beams and slabs which are liable to deflect appreciably under load, removal of centering and imposition of load should be deferred at least one month so that the concrete gains sufficient strength before it bears the load.
Curing of any concrete member should be done for a minimum period of 7 to 10 days and terminated gradually to avoid quick drying.
Concrete work in a very hot and windy climate should be avoided, and in case it is not avoidable then precautions shall be taken to keep the temperature of fresh concrete down and to prevent quick drying of concrete. The following steps should be taken to keep the temperature of freshly prepared concrete down:
Aggregate and water for mixing should be shaded from direct sun. - Part of mixing water may be replaced by pounded ice. - As far as possible concreting should be done in the early hours of the day.
Re-trowelling the concrete surface slightly, before its initial setting to mitigate plastic shrinkage cracks
RCC framework:
As far as possible, a framework should be completed before starting the work of panel walls for cladding and partitioning.
Work of construction of panel walls and the partition should be deferred as much as possible and should proceed from top to downward.
When partition walls are to be supported on a floor beam or slab upward camber should be provided in the floor slab/beam to counteract deflection.
Horizontal movement joint should be provided between the top of the panel wall and the soffit of the beam, and when structurally required little support to the wall should be provided at the top by using telescopic anchorage or similar arrangement. Horizontal movement joint between the top of wall and soffit of beam/slab shall be filled which some compressible jointing material.
If the door opening is to be provided in a partition wall, a centre opening is preferable to an off-centre opening.
Light re-vibration of concrete shall be done, before it has set, for the member and section prone to plastic settlement cracks i.e. narrow column and walls, at the change of depth in section.
Provision of reinforcement for thermal stresses:
To control the cracks in the concrete due to shrinkage as well as temperature effect, adequate temperature reinforcement shall be provided. This temperature reinforcement is more effective if smaller diameter bars and deformed steel are used than plain reinforcement.
RCC Lintels:
Bearing for RCC lintels should be on the liberal side when spans are large so as to avoid concentration of stress at the jambs.
RCC roof slab:
The top of the slab should be provided with adequate insulation or protective cover together with some high reflectivity finish cover to check the thermal movement of the slab and consequent cracking in the supporting wall and panel/partition wall.
In a load-bearing structure, a slip joint should be introduced between the slab and supporting/cross walls. Further either the slab should project for some length from the supporting wall or the slab should rest only on part width of the wall as shown in the figure below:
On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should be made discontinuous by a groove of about 10 mm. For introducing the slip joint, the bearing portion of the supporting wall is rendered smooth with plaster (preferably with a neat cement finish), which is then allowed to set and partly dry. Thereafter either it is given a thick coat of whitewash, or 2 to 3 layers of tarred paper are placed over the plaster surface, before casting the slab.
Plastering:
When plastering is to be done on masonry, mortar joints in masonry should be raked out to 10 mm depth while the mortar is green. Plastering should be done after masonry has been properly cured and allowed to dry to undergo initial shrinkage before plaster.
For plastering on concrete background, it should be done as soon as feasible after removal of shuttering by roughing the concrete surface where necessary by hacking, and applying neat cement slurry on the concrete surface to improve the bond.
When RCC and brickwork occur in combination and to be plastered, then sufficient time (at least 1 month) shall be allowed for RCC and brickwork to undergo initial shrinkage and creep before taking up plasterwork. In such case, either groove shall be provided in the plaster at the junction or a 10cm wide strip of metal mesh or lathing shall also be provided over the junction to act as reinforcement.
Concrete and terrazzo floor:
Control joint should be provided in the concrete and terrazzo floor either by laying floors in alternate panels or by introducing strips of glass, aluminium or some plastic material at a close interval in a grid pattern.
When flooring is to be laid on the RCC slab, either a base course of lime concrete should be provided between the RCC slab and the flooring or the surface of the slab should be well roughened, cleaned and primed with cement slurry before laying of the floor.
RCC work in exposed conditions:
For RCC work in exposed conditions i.e. sunshades, balconies, canopies, open veranda etc., to prevent shrinkage cum contraction cracks, an adequate quantity of temperature reinforcement shall be provided. In such conditions, the quantity shall be increased by 50 to 100 % of the minimum amount prescribed.
Wall finishing:
Finishing items i.e. distemper and painting etc. should be carried out after the plaster has dried and has undergone drying shrinkage.
Pace of construction:
The construction schedule and the pace of construction should be regulated to ensure :
All items of masonry are properly cured and allowed to dry before plastering work is done, thus concealing the cracks in masonry in plasterwork. Similarly, plasterwork should be cured and allowed to dry before applying the finishing coat. To conceal the cracks in plaster under the finish coat.
In the case of concrete work before taking masonry work either over it or by its side, most of the drying shrinkage, creep and elastic deformation of concrete should be allowed to take place, to avoid cracks in masonry or the junction of masonry and concrete.
What is preventive maintenance and how to use it effectively?
Preventive maintenance (or preventative maintenance) is maintenance that is regularly and routinely performed on physical assets to reduce the chances of equipment failure and unplanned machine downtime.
Why is preventive maintenance important?
Preventive maintenance is important because it lays the foundation for successful facility management. Preventive maintenance keeps equipment and assets running efficiently, maintains a high safety level for your employees, and helps you avoid large and costly repairs down the road.
Types of preventive maintenance
There are three main types of preventive maintenance which should be scheduled and performed on all items of equipment to prevent unplanned failure:
Time-based preventive maintenance: A preventive maintenance task using a set time interval, such as every 10 days, every month, or every 3 months.
Usage-based preventive maintenance: When asset usage hits a certain benchmark. This can include after a certain number of kilometres, hours, or production cycles.
Condition-based preventive maintenance: A maintenance strategy that monitors the actual condition of an asset to determine what maintenance task needs to be done.
What is a preventive maintenance checklist?
It is a set of tasks that the technician needs to complete to close a preventive maintenance work order.
The purpose is to ensure preventive maintenance tasks are done correctly and in the same sequence of steps, regardless of which maintenance team member completes them.
FACILITY MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
When creating a schedule of facilities maintenance obligations, agencies should include a list of all the facilities maintenance obligations required, who is responsible for undertaking such obligations and when the obligations need to be met.
Facilities managers need to ensure that they are familiar with the legislation and regulations which govern the operation of their property portfolio. Awareness of and compliance with relevant legislation and regulations is essential.
The health and safety of staff and visitors (including contractors and subcontractors working on site) are of paramount importance.
It is also important for facilities managers to be aware of the health and safety, employment and training standards of all contractors, ensuring that their subcontractors are also compliant with relevant legislation and procedures. It is recommended that contractors are performance managed against key performance indicators.
Agencies should not take on a contractor who has a poor health and safety record. If an agency does and there is a serious issue on-site, the agency may be held responsible for its poor performance.
Agencies should ensure that all contractors identify possible risks before commencing work and identify and implement measures that will mitigate the identified risks.
Agencies should ensure that contractors understand the need to report any accident or dangerous incident to enable the appropriate preventative actions to be undertaken.
Agencies should investigate all accidents that occur on their premises and expect full cooperation from contractors and their employees to establish the cause of such accidents and the remedial actions necessary to prevent a recurrence.
Any accidents should be recorded in a register. The register should document details of the accident, how the accident was dealt with and the steps taken to prevent such accidents from occurring in the future.
Note that criminal checks/security clearances may be required before contractors and sub-contractors can undertake work on particular sites. The facilities staff are responsible for ensuring such clearances are in place before providing access to such sites.
All assets (e.g. security systems) should be monitored and reviewed regularly to minimise having to act reactively when an asset fails to operate as it should.
The approach taken to maintain assets should be appropriate to the criticality of the assets.