PhD proposal Final(4)

Proposal for Doctoral Research:
"THE INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP
ON EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION,
EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY"
Student name : Petronella Frederika Smit Supervisor:
Student Number: 527241 Professor Richard Chinomona
petras@joburg.org.za Richard.Chinomona@wits.ac.za

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Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..............................................................................................i
1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................1
2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY......................................................................3
2.1 Research Context ..................................................................................................3
2.2 Problem Statement................................................................................................4
2.3 Research Gap and Justification of the Study ....................................................6
3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................7
3.1 Theoretical Objectives...........................................................................................7
3.2 Empirical Objectives..............................................................................................7
4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ..................................................................................8
5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY.............................8
5.1 Leadership ..............................................................................................................8
5.2 Empowerment ..................................................................................................... 10
5.3 Transformational Leadership ............................................................................ 11
5.4 Employee Workplace Spirituality...................................................................... 13
5.5 Employee Motivation.......................................................................................... 14
5.6 Employee Citizenship Behaviour...................................................................... 16
5.7 Organisational Performance ............................................................................. 18
6 HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT................................................................... 20
6.1 Leadership Skills and Leadership Empowerment ......................................... 20
6.2 Leadership Skills and Employee Workplace Spirituality............................... 21
6.3 Leadership Skills and Employee Motivation................................................... 22
6.4 Leadership Empowerment and Employee Workplace Spirituality .............. 24
6.5 Leadership Empowerment and Employee Motivation .................................. 24
6.6 Employee Workplace Spirituality and Employee Motivation........................ 25
6.7 Employee Workplace Spirituality and Employee Citizenship Behaviour ... 26
6.8 Employee Motivation and Employee Citizenship Behaviour ....................... 26

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6.9 Employee Citizenship Behaviour and Organisational Performance ........... 27
6.10 Conceptual Model............................................................................................... 28
7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................... 29
7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 29
7.2 Research Strategy.............................................................................................. 29
7.3 Research Approach............................................................................................ 30
7.4 Research Methodology...................................................................................... 30
7.5 Research Population.......................................................................................... 31
7.6 Sampling .............................................................................................................. 31
7.7 Sampling Methodology ...................................................................................... 31
7.8 Sample Size......................................................................................................... 32
7.9 Research Instrument.......................................................................................... 32
7.10 Data Collection Techniques .............................................................................. 32
8 DATA ANALYSIS APPROCH......................................................................... 33
8.1 Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................ 34
8.2 Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................... 34
9 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION....................................................... 35
REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 36

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
APCFB The Assumptions, Perceptions, Conclusions, Feelings and
Behaviour
AVE Average Variance Extracted
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CFI Comparative Fit Index
CJMM City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality
COJ City of Johannesburg
CR Composite Reliability
CWB Counterproductive Work Behaviour
DA Democratic Alliance
ECB Employee Citizenship Behaviour
eNCA E-News Channel Africa
GFI Goodness-of-Fit
IFI Incremental Fit Index
OB Organisational Behaviour
OCB Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
OP Organisational Performance
RMSEA Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
SEM Structural Equation Modeling
TLI Tucker-Lewis Index
EI Emotional Intelligence

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1 INTRODUCTION
It has become evident that it is critical to identify factors impacting on the living
standards and quality of lives of communities, which is negatively affected due to the
absence, or poor quality services rendered by municipalities in South Africa. The
overall perception of local government in South Africa is that service delivery levels are
declining and that it does not only reflect poorly on the management of these
municipalities but has a critical impact on the Government’s ability to ensure that quality
services are delivered in the country.
The poor quality, or the lack of these services result into obstructing growth and
development of in business or industrial areas which limits job opportunities for
residents and further has a negative impact on the health and living standards of the
residents. These concerns have triggered the question as to what would have to
change to improve service delivery in the CJMM. The fact that leadership has the
ability to reshape the manner in which employees act can change the manner into
which the company performs, and thus raised the question as to what the effect of
leadership is on employee workplace spirituality, -motivation, - citizenship behaviour
and organisational performance.
The common vision of the future for the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality
(CJMM), as extracted from the CJMM Integrated Development Plan 2012/16 is: “to be
a World Class African City of the Future - a vibrant, equitable African city, strengthened
through its diversity; a city that provides real quality of life; a city that provides
sustainability for all its residents; a resilient and adaptive society. (COJ - Business
Planning Department, 2012).
The underpinning values to achieve the City of Johannesburg’s (COJ) Vision and
Mission are to meet expectations by persistently contributing to the satisfaction and
well-being of customers, in a “passionate, courteous and knowledgeable manner; to
take pride in all the actions by providing the highest level of service; to consistently act
honorably and above reproach and keep promisesmade; and to maintaina high regard
for customers in daily engagements” (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013).
It is essential to understand, how leadership, may affect employee workplace
spirituality, motivation and citizenship behaviour, and how these elements may impact

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on organisational performance which may hinder the CJMM in achieving their visionary
intentions. It is the aim of the researcher to determine what interventions would be
necessary to be most beneficial in assisting the municipality to curb the problem of
leadership and de-motivation, low performances and work effort and to understand the
underlying issues behind the problem, whilst creating awareness and giving innovative
insight to those who are already aware of this topic.
This probed the curiosity in that the researcher would like to attempt to prove that
leadership strongly influences employee workplace spirituality, motivation and
citizenship behaviour which may have a significant effect on the performance of the
CJMM. The researcher view it as essential to understand how the CJMM responds to
these elements and to determine what interventions would be necessary to be most
beneficial in assisting the CJMM to curb the problem of leadership and ineffectiveness
in this area; and to further understand the underlying issues behind low perceived
performance and service delivery problems, whilst creating awareness and giving
innovative insight to those who are already aware of this topic.
Thus, the focus of this research will be to examine the probability of a correlation
between leadership and the effect thereof on employee work effort, motivation,
employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance in the CJMM. The
researcher believes that the findings of this research will provide fruitful implications to
both practitioners and academicians.
On the academic side, this proposed study will make a substantial contribution to
leadership and organisational performance literature by systematically exploring the
impact of leadership on organisational behaviour in the CJMM in South Africa. In
particular, the researcher will attempt to prove that leadership must be recognised as
a significant antecedent and instrument to employee work effort, employee motivation,
employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance in the public sector in
South Africa.
On the practitioner’s side, the researcher will attempt to provide important feedback on
the mediating role of employee work effort, employee motivation and employee
citizenship behaviour in the leadership – organisational performance relationship in
South Africa’s public sectors.

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The principal knowledge gap that will be addressed is the importance of leadership
and its elements that impact on both employees and the organisation in as far as it has
a potential influence on strategic objectives.
2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
2.1 RESEARCH CONTEXT
The context of the study is discussed in this section, namely the municipal industry and
performance quality.
As the foundation of the values of the CJMM’S Vision and Mission are to meet
expectations of customers by contributing to the satisfaction and well-being of these
customers, the CJMM needs to ensure that their employees are effective and efficient
in their daily tasks. (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013).
Whilst some municipalities are very well managed, the overall current state of local
government in South Africa is precariously classified by its “increasing outstanding
debtors, the qualified audit reports, poor systems (internally and externally), poor
performance, poor long-term planning, huge service delivery backlogs and queries,
increasing salary bills, unfunded mandates, government debt, concerns about
sustainability, and greater demands and expectations by all stakeholders” (COJ -
Business Planning Department, 2012).
The services provided by municipalities have a direct impact on the living standards
and quality of lives of the people in the community. For example, if a customer relations
agent, employed in the frontline, does not report a problem or query correctly, or
reports it late or not at all, and, the water is disconnected or refuse is not collected
regularly, it will create a contaminated, unhealthy and unsafe living environment, and
a highly dissatisfied citizen and frustrated community. The poorly serviced areas can
place a damper on the growth and development of businesses or industries which will
limit job opportunities for residents (City of Johannesburg, 2013).
Whatever the challenges, the municipality must deliver on its mandate, which is
essentially to improve the quality of life for all South Africans. Residents of

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Johannesburg indicated that they wanted the City of Johannesburg (COJ) to ensure
that the municipality is efficient, effective and functional; is responsive to the needs of
its population; provides quality services and addresses basic service needs and
requirements; continues the schedule and need for transformation and change;
communicates and engages with residents on development plans and progress and
addresses service delivery backlogs (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013: 3).
The CJMM requires resources like finances, empowered managers, well-trained
employees and systems and equipment to deliver on its constitutional mandate (COJ
- Marketing Department, 2013: 3). One way to address the extent to which limited
resources affect the ability to deliver on its constitutional mandate, is to ensure that
service excellence is maintained, which affects query resolution, collections, employee
and organisational performance and accuracy of data.
The CJMM can be seen as a vehicle with interrelated, interdependent, and interacting
parts that work together to deliver the services required. Fitz-enz (2009: 8) stated that
“humans are the only element with inherent power to generate value as all other
variables (cash, assets, material, equipment and energy) add nothing until some
individual leverage that potential to add value by putting it into play.”
Based on the challenges impacting the delivery on the CJMM’s constitutional mandate,
and the fact that the value added by people impacts organisational performance in the
CJMM, the researcher identified the need to explore the extent to which leadership
skills and empowerment impact on employee workplace spirituality, motivation,
employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance, which affect the
quality of life of the residents.
2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Municipal service delivery levels have not been able to meet the expectations of
customers in terms of quality demands, service levels and query resolutions by the
CJMM. As extracted in the Integrated Development Plan of the CJMM (2012: 11 - 12)
the CJMM indicated that “the sustainability of service delivery remains critical.”
In South Africa, it is known that municipalities have “massive outstanding debts,
enormous back-logs of queries and bad reputations due to ineffective and inefficient

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service delivery levelsand performance” (Financial and Fiscal Commission, 2011: 81).
This suggests that there may be hidden elements that should be investigated to
comprehend their impact on leadership and effect thereof on employee workplace
spirituality, motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and the effect thereof on
organisational performance to increased service delivery levels.
The CJMM will be chosen for this study as it is one of the municipalities where “constant
allegations of maladministration, wrong billing and poor service delivery” are being
published in various media, such as the D.A. Media release (Atkinson, 2012); E-News
Channel Africa (eNCA, 2013); consumer comments (eNCA, 2013); The Mail &
Guardian (Bauer, 2012); Radio 702 (Robbie, 2011) and Carte Blanche (Bingwa,
Phirippides and Christoforou, 2010). The Financial and Fiscal Commission (2011: 13)
has found that a direct impact of the 2008/2009 recession has resulted in a decrease
of services due to a decline in payment levels and a decrease in the quality of existing
services and organisational performance.
The above has prompted interest in this research in order to find out to what extent
leadership skills and empowerment influences employee workplace spirituality,
motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and the effect thereof on organisational
performance in the CJMM.
In light of this problem area, the proposed study will strive to fill this research gap and
possibly demonstrate significant relations between leadership skills and
empowerment; employee workplace spirituality, -motivation and -citizenship behaviour
and organisational performance in the CJMM. By filling this gap in academia, the study
will further assist by contributing empirical literature, findings and theories that may
inspire further studies.
Additionally the study will contribute in assisting other Municipalities to apply lessons
learned throughout the country as the overall current state of municipalities in South
Africa is precariously “characterized by increasing debtor books, qualified audits, poor
employee and organisational performance, poor systems, poor long term planning,
huge service delivery backlogs, increasing salary bills, unfunded mandates,
government debt, concerns about sustainability, and greater demands and
expectations by all stakeholders” (Kumar, 2008).

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2.3 RESEARCH GAP AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality (CJMM) has been criticized for its
inability to provide customers with excellent service, quick query resolutions and
accurate bills. The success of performance usually depends on a multitude of factors
where the efficiency of the CJMM employees are a major concern. Prior studies have
shown that various departments like the Contact Centers, Billing, Credit Management,
Customer Services and Query Resolutions are high-pressured and stressful
environments, doing routine work with very little control, intense performance
monitoring, meeting of performance targets, high turnover, and absenteeism (Kwok,
2005: 3).
The aim of this study is to identify factors affecting the organisational performance
levels to assist CJMM to:
 Improve and achieve optimal service delivery,
 Increase customer satisfaction levels,
 Improve brand image,
 Improve query resolutions and collection rates,
 Improve leadership abilities,
 Improve organisational performance, and
 To achieve strategic goals and objectives.
Further to the above, the proposed research will be beneficial to the CJMM since the
findings will assist in identifying the factors that influence service delivery, customer
satisfaction and organisational performance in the CJMM. The research findings will
also guide the CJMM on the approach they need to follow to improve organisational
performance; to manage and improve on processes and procedures in order to
improve employee motivation and performance; and to improve leadership which
critically impact on the strategic targets of the CJMM. In addition, the findings will also
be valuable to the CJMM as they will be used to determine future strategies that the
company should adopt to organisational performance.
The lessons learned can further be applied to municipalities throughout the country as
the overall current state of municipalities in South Africa is precariously characterized

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by “increasing debtor books, qualified audits, poor performance, poor systems, poor
long term planning, huge service delivery backlogs, increasing salary bills, unfunded
mandates, government debt, concerns about sustainability, and greater demands and
expectations by all stakeholders” (Kumar, n.d.).
3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study is to investigate to what extent leadership impacts on employee
work effort, motivation, performance and organisational behaviour in the CJMM.
3.1 THEORETICAL OBJECTIVES
The following theoretical objectives were developed:
To review literature on leadership skills and empowerment; employee workplace
spirituality, employee motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and
organisational performance.
3.2 EMPIRICAL OBJECTIVES
The following empirical objectives were developed:
3.2.1 To explore the relationship between leadership skills and leadership
empowerment;
3.2.2 To examine the relationship between leadership skills and employee
workplace spirituality;
3.2.3 To examine the relationship between leadership skills and employee
motivation;
3.2.4 To explore the relationship between leadership empowerment and workplace
spirituality;
3.2.5 To explore the relationship between leadership empowerment and employee
motivation;
3.2.6 To examine the influence of employee workplace spirituality on employee
motivation;
3.2.7 To ascertain the influence of employee workplace spirituality on employee
citizenship behaviour;
3.2.8 To ascertain the influence of employee motivation on employee citizenship
behaviour;

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3.2.9 To determine the effect employee citizenship behaviour on organisational
performance.
4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions are as follows:
4.1 Does leadership skills affect leadership empowerment?
4.2 Does the leadership skills have an effect on employee workplace spirituality?
4.3 Does leadership skills have an effect on employee motivation?
4.4 Does leadership empowerment affect employee workplace spirituality?
4.5 Does leadership empowerment affect employee motivation?
4.6 To what extent does employee workplace spirituality affect employee
motivation?
4.7 How does employee workplace spirituality affect employee citizenship
behaviour?
4.8 How does employee motivation affect employee citizenship behaviour?
4.9 To what extent does employee citizenship behaviour affect organisational
performance?
5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
The literature review in this research proposal consists of relevant information about
various theories, concepts and models relating to factors impacting on organisational
behaviour, employee work effort and motivation and leadership as other factors
discussed by various researchers, authors and scholars. Due to unknown factors,
which will be identified during the research process, only some of the proposed factors
will be discussed briefly in this literature review.
The purpose of this study will be to identify challenges that affect organisational
behaviour stemming from employee motivation, work effort and leadership within the
CJMM.
5.1 LEADERSHIP
Leadership as seen by Robbins and Judge (2013: 402) is “the ability to influence a
group in order to achieve a specific vision or set of goals”. Various other academics
has similar views whereas Kotter (2007: 97) highlights the significance of leadership

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for driving successful change and Bass (2008: 25) states that leadership is “a link
between two or more members of a group that often includes structuring or
restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the members”.
Leaders seem to be facing more and more difficult tasks, which includes motivating,
performance managing and driving employees to be more effective and efficient.
Leaders apply critical thinking skills, vision, instinct, convincing rhetoric and interactive
communication methods, active listening and positive discourse whereby he then
facilitates and extracts the opinions and beliefs of followers motivating them to move
towards understanding and clarity, accepting the future state of the organisation as a
desired condition worth pledging their commitment toward goals and objectives. The
leader accomplishes this through ethical conduct and ensuring that followers are better
off as a result of his leadership initiatives. (Winston and Patterson, 2006: 7).
Kotter (1996) conducted research on why efforts fail, and he found that “leadership is
the one most significant factor for failure in an organisation”. The role of a strategic
leader is to move the organisation from the current to the future state, creating visions
and opportunities for the organisation, inspiring and changing employees in the
organisation, instilling the required culture in the organisation and to mobilize and focus
resources to implement the strategy. (Buller, 1988: 50). This is why it is critical that the
leader has the ability and skills to fulfil this role.
Srivastava, Barton and Locke (2006: 1240) mentioned that “empowerment was initially
conceptualized as a facet of a relation or power sharing view”. The theoretical origins
of the view of leadership include the Ohio State leadership studies (Fleishman, 1953)
on consideration; work on supportive leadership (Bowers and Seashore, 1966) and
amongst others the training, partaking and delegating behaviors included in situational
leadership theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1969). The leader must use various tactics
to be empowered: delegation, professional mentorship, education, open door policy,
integrity and trustworthiness (Belcher, n.d.).
To comprehend the effects of leadership on performance is essential as some
researchers perceive leadership amongst the key driving forces for improving
organisational performance. (Avolio, 1999; Lado, Boyd and Wright, 1992; Rowe, 2001;

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Obiwuru et al., 2011). “Transactional leadership assist organisations to achieve
present objectives more effectively and efficiently through linking job performance to
rewards and visionary leaders create a strategic vision, communicating that vision
consistently, and build commitment towards the vision” (Obiwuru et al., 2011: 202).
Mehra, Smith, Dixon and Robertson (2006) in Obiwuru et al., (2011: 202) said that
when organisations search for efficient methods to empower them outperform
competitors, they believe that the enduring approach is to concentrate on the effects
of leadership.
The challenge for creating empowering workplaces might be present in in the role of
effective leadership. Managers craft the conditions for employees' work by defining the
quality of information, support, and resources in organisations. Upon realising that
leaders are authentic, open and honest, involving employees in decision-making,
employees respond positively to their work, reporting increased performance, trust and
commitment to management. (Wong and Laschinger, 2012: 948).
It is evident from the above discussions that a leader influences the view, conduct and
performance of employees, which impact on strategic objectives of the organisation.
Managers and employees want well-matched results: results linked with
empowerment. This fact is central to innovation and creation of new opportunities by
identifying and aligning leadership to empowerment. This study will endeavour to
detect and focus on ideas, models and gaps to alter and empower leadership in the
CJMM, using literature theories as discussed to align and improve leadership in the
CJMM.
5.2 EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment, as a theoretical model, applied as management tool, has been defined
by scholars and experts in numerous ways. Bowen and Lawler’s (1992) in Cheung,
Baum and Wong (2010) stated that empowerment is a notion which comprises of
“sharing information, rewards, knowledge and power with front line employees”. The
employees are called by Bateson and Hoffman (1999) in Cheung, Baum and Wong
(2010) “boundary-spanning workers” acting as mediators between customers and the
organisation.

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These employees may make their own decisions and improve their abilities and skills
through development initiatives. Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) stated that
“management researchers strive to expand the conceptualization of empowerment
further than only discretionary power and job autonomy”. For example, Spreitzer
(1995) in Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) states that empowerment must be
“operationalized as a psychological construct” replicating an employee’s self-control
and self-efficacy; whereas Arnold, Arad, Rhoades and Drasgow (2000) claim that
empowerment should “seize the nature of the relationship between managers and their
subordinates”. Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010).
Apart from the above, severe uncertainty (for example, Baum 2006) has been created
on the “applicabilityof workplace empowerment, in its westernized form, within cultures
where managerial structures are, perhaps, more formal and power distance is greater”
(Cheung, Baum and Wong, 2010).
Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) found that empowerment is perceived to involve trust
from management as it permits employees to make decisions, deal with difficult
problems and to increase their productivity and performance. Empowerment further
enables employees to be flexible and to solve problems instantly which results in higher
job satisfaction and thus increased performance. Empowerment further assist
employees to appreciate and understand their full potential and assist managers with
solutions in the organisation. (Cheung, Baum and Wong, 2010)
It is evident from the research done by Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) and other
academics that empowerment can have a negative or positive effect on an individual
and thus should be researched more in-depth to propose change in the CJMM to
enhance performance.
5.3 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
The transformational leadership theory will provide a framework to examine the
relationships of managers and peers leadership within individual and team outcomes
among employees in the CJMM. Limited research has been done to examine
mechanisms that link leadership and team performance (Srivastava, Bartol and Locke,
2006: 1239). Results obtained in research done by Srivastava, et al., (2006) showed
that leadership was positively linked to both knowledge sharing and team efficiency

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and effectiveness, which, in turn, were both positively related to performance.
Srivastava, et al., (2006: 1240) stated that several scholars reviewed empowerment
as an aspect of the relational or power sharing view.
What is transformational leadership? Leadership is multidimensional and contains
transactional, transformational and laissez-faire behaviors which include the absence
of leadership (Price and Weiss, 2013: 266). “Transformational leadership is more
positively associated with the effectiveness of the organisation and the satisfaction of
the customer (Avolio and Yammarino, 2013: 12)”.
Transformational leadership theory highlights the leader-follower relationship, making
it relevant to the study of employee performance in the CJMM (Price and Weiss, 2013:
266). Transformational leaders encourage and motivate followers to surpass
performance expectations by influencing followers’ beliefs and attitudes.
Transformational behaviors contain: “inspirational motivation (e.g., creating a vision),
idealized influence (e.g., modeling behaviors or values), individualized consideration
(e.g., considering followers’ individual needs), and intellectual stimulation (e.g.,
encouraging follower creativity)” (Price and Weiss, 2013: 266).
Transformational leadership has shown encouraging and positive effects on followers’
motivation, commitment, satisfaction, efficiency, performance and other outcomes; and
can be applied to many domains including municipal environments. Thus, managers
and leaders who take part in transformational leadership behaviors can provide a
positive input and influence on the outcomes of individuals, such as “proficiency,
emotional responses, intrinsic motivation and team cohesion, goals and objectives”
(Price and Weiss, 2013: 266).
Studies of Transformational Leadership have shown improvements in total
organisational performance. A study relating to bank managers (Barling, Weber and
Kelloway, 1996) has shown substantial positive effects of Transformational Leadership
training, which included improved employee commitment to the organisation, as well
as improved financial performance. The same study proposed that training managers
resulted in improved Transformational Leadership behaviour as perceived by their
subordinates. A study done by Howell and Avolio (1993) regarding managers in a

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large Canadian financial institution specified that Transformational Leadership
behaviours were directly interrelated to enhancements in the business unit
performance (Howell and Avolio, 1993).
Avolio and Yammarino, (2013: 27) concluded that they have evidence “that
transformational leaders are linked to organisational success, efficiency and
effectiveness, customer satisfaction and improved performance” which prompt the
interest for this research in discovering facets within the leadership of the CJMM.
5.4 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY
Workplace spirituality is defined as an extremely high individual and moral construct
and most academics admit that “spirituality involves a sense of wholeness,
connectedness at work, and deeper values” (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson,
2003: 427). Workplace spirituality encompasses “the effort to find one’s ultimate
purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other people
associated with work, and to have consistency (or alignment) between one’s core
beliefs and the values of their organisation” (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson,
2003: 427).
Limitations identified include, amongst others that prior research focused on describing
personal spiritual practices at work and did not include the impact that workplace
spirituality have on employee’s individual work attitudes and behaviours (Milliman ,
Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427). These studies often anticipated that workplace
spirituality only has a positive impact, rather than empirically testing the relationships
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427).
Focusing on three dimensions within employee work spirituality allows for a more
interesting study. “The three core dimensions consist of the purpose in one’s work or
meaningful work (individual level), having a sense of community (group level), and
being in alignment with the organisation’s values and mission (organisation level)”
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427).
Jurkiewicz and Giacalone, (2004: 129) found that people are looking for ways to
combine their “personal and professional values with a desire to attain individual
fulfilment through their labour”. Ajala, (2013: 3), in his paper on the Impact of

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Workplace Spirituality and Employees' wellbeing at the Industrial Sector: The Nigerian
Experience, said that the spiritual approach “recognizes that people work not only with
their hands but also with their hearts or spirit”. This implicates that people are beings
with feelings, emotions, spirituality which often makes decisions based on the “way
they feel”.
Ajala, (2013: 3) went further saying that “at the workplace, spirituality exists
horizontally”, which is based on a need to be of service to others and this is revealed
“by service orientation and deep concern for others at work”.
Bass, (1990) and Champoux, (2000) in Ajala, (2013: 3 - 4) stated that showing concern
and high quality interpersonal work relationships produces increased job satisfaction,
lower staff turnover, group cohesion, performance, efficiency and effectiveness. Thus,
spirituality gives employees a sense of belonging, community and relatedness which
increases employees’ commitment, trust, feeling of belonging, productivity, motivation
and effectiveness (Ajala, 2013: 3 - 4).
Spirituality, can thus be perceived as “feelings within” which triggers the survival
instinct of individuals. Turner (1999) stated that spirituality “is pertaining to our meaning
and dreams, our patterns of thought, our emotion, feelings and behaviours”.
“Literature correlating workplace spirituality-related factors with performance can be
shown to triangulate three areas: Motivation, Commitment, and Adaptability” (Milliman
, Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135).
As workplace spirituality is linked directly to “motivation, commitment and adaptability”
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) which drives performance, the
researcher would like to explore factors hindering workplace spirituality in the CJMM
and propose methods, models and processes to improve workplace spirituality.
5.5 EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Numerous researches relating to motivation and organisational identification, job
design and satisfaction, moods, emotions, environmental and hygiene factors can be
explored in this research. Some applicable models and theories discussed are
summarized below:

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5.5.1 MASLOW’S HIERARCH OF NEEDS
Maslow (1943: 370-396) said that management need to understand that employees
has a goal of self-actualization. As the employee grows and moves to the higher levels
they will require deeper levels of learning, motivation and commitment. Taylor (1856
– 1917) in turn said that workers are motivated mainly by compensation whereas Mayo
(1880 – 1949) believed that money is not the only tool to motivate workers but their
motivation could be increased by having their social needs met whilst at work.
(Maslow, 1943, pp. 370-396)
Here the Human Relation School of thought was introduced, focusing on managers
caring for workers, treating them better, listing and appreciating their opinions and
appreciating that workers enjoy interaction in the workplace. Maslow (1908 – 1970)
and Herzberg (1923) thereafter introduced the Neo-Human Relations School during
1950, focusing on the psychological needs of employees. (Tutor-2-You, 2015).
5.5.2 SCHEIN’S ICEBERG
Schein indicated how difficult it is to “see the assumptions that underlie our behaviours
and if changes in behaviours or artifacts are sufficient (i.e., at the tip of the iceberg),
then no further effort is necessary” (McLean, 2009, p. 8). The researcher would like to
explore if these underlying behaviours have an impact on motivation and what are the
consequences.
The CJMM should analyse and understand the hidden and unknown factors of
behaviour and assumptions that affects motivation and work effort of employees. This
analysis can be done by deployment of statistical research methodologies.
Some important satisfiers or motivators may include amongst others, responsibilities,
achievement, growth opportunities, career and development plans, coaching and
feedback, feelings of recognition, life- work balance and are the key to job satisfaction
and motivation. The researcher will explore some of these factors to identify what
people really do in their jobs to recommend improvements, thus increasing job
satisfaction, motivation, work effort and performance.

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5.5.3 THE ASSUMPTIONS, PERCEPTIONS, CONCLUSIONS, FEELINGS AND
BEHAVIOUR (APCFB) PSYCHOLOGY MODEL
Cognitive-behavioral theories are best viewed as a set of interrelated theories, which
developed from theoretical works, scientific experiences, and empirical research of
behavioral and cognitively psychologists. These individual theories are related through
common perceptions, methods and research approaches, but preserve a multitude of
views regarding the role cognitions play in behavior change. The APCFB Psychology
Model, seen as a cognitive model, describes the way in which assumptions, beliefs,
and values affect the perceptions people have (Silbiger, 2005: 125). Whilst this model
describes how feelings drive behaviour the researcher would try to test the probability
that these perceptions drive motivation, work effort and performance.
The researcher highlights the fact that motivation is based on various models and
theories which relate directly to organisational identification, job design, trust,
ownership, satisfaction, moods, emotions, environmental and hygiene factors which
will be explored in this study in the CJMM.
5.6 EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
Bolino and Turnley, (2003: 61) noted that in has been confirmed in recent empirical
studies by several researchers who examined organisational performance that
Employee Citizenship Behaviour (ECB) produces tangible advantages for
organisations. In addition, the studies yielded positive correlations between ECB,
performance, revenue, customer satisfaction and quality of service delivery levels.
(Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61).
Further to the above, Bolino and Turnley, (2003: 61) found that it is not likely that ECB
will improve organisation performance directly. ECB will also be responsible for a
“source of competitive advantage that is maintainable in the long run”. They state that
it is critical that organisations and their leaders have a comprehensive understanding
of the elements that will influence employees to be willing to go the extra mile. (Bolino
and Turnley, 2003: 61).
Apart from the above discussion, work performance splits into task and non-task
performances where positive non-task performance is generally referred to as

17
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) or pro-social behaviour. Contrary, at the
same time, negative non-task performance is referred to as Counterproductive Work
Behaviour (CWB) (Sackett et al., 2006: 441 - 443). Employees who take part in OCB
are unlikely to engage in CWB and vice versa (Ariani, 2013: 49).
ECB is defined as “contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social
and psychological context (of the organisation) that support task performance” (Pitzer-
Brandon, 2013: 7). Organ, (1997: 91) in Pitzer-Brandon (2013) presented this definition
in an article that studied present literature on ECB.The definition provides an extensive
description of ECB with few limitations.
Insecurity in the workplace is a personal level of perception particularly related to job
loss and the perceived stability and continuation of an individuals’ employment with an
organisation. The perception of having a job, but not knowing if it is secure, has been
classified as the most stressful burdens on an employee. Currently in the unstable
economic environment, it seem to be increasingly common. Job satisfaction is
perceived as an emotional state resulting from the evaluation of job experience,
whereas job insecurity stems directly from lower job satisfaction that is associated with
deviant behaviour, such as decreased work effort, working slowly, taking longer breaks
and arriving later than permitted. Furthermore, Resisel et al., (2010: 75 - 86) found a
negative relationship was found between job insecurity and OCB.
Some factors, amongst others, identified as elements that create citizenship are
“satisfied workers; transformational and supportive leadership; interesting work and job
involvement; trust; organisational justice; psychological contract fulfilment;
organisational support; employee characteristics; human resource management
practices that accentuate good citizenship and fair and transparent recruitment and
selection processes, training and development and informal systems encouraging
ECB” (Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61 - 65).
It was also found that team effectiveness and OCB are outcomes vital for team
success. As teams are vital to the organisations’ success, it is critical to establish
sound relationships with employees and ensure that they are content and happy in
their environment. This has a critical impact on the strategic objectives of an
organisation as individuals are the key to excellent performance. Organisations,

18
increasingly use teams to strengthen their competitive advantage, increase
productivity and response times, improve innovation and creativity, and improve their
decision-making (Mahembe and Engelbrecht , 2014). Mahembe and Engelbrecht,
(2014: 1 - 2) believed that “effective team functioning is one of the major determinants
of organisational success”.
ECB can thus be seen as a “team process variable that has a dynamic impact on team
effectiveness” (Mahembe and Engelbrecht , 2014: 1 - 2). This form of behaviour is vital
in a team situation as it specifies the degree in which individual members of the team
are capable and keen to engage in the organisational environment (Mahembe and
Engelbrecht , 2014: 1 - 2).
ECB, as a tool to enhance organisational performance to meet strategic objectives are
critical in ensuring a competitive advantage and as ECB can be applied to strengthen
the competitive advantage, increase productivity and response times, improve
innovation and creativity, and improve decision-making processes this study will
explore factors impacting of ECB to propose improvements to the CJMM and other
municipalities.
5.7 ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Lloyd, (1990), in (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) said that
“organisations with high levels of workplace spirituality outdo those without it by 86%”.
Lloyd, (1990), in (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) went further, saying
that these organisations expand faster, increase effectiveness and efficiencies and
produce higher returns on investments. On a personal level, generalised benefits of a
“spiritual culture include increased physical and mental health of employees”,
progressive personal progress through something larger than oneself, and a
heightened sense of self-worth (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135 - 136).
Organisational Performance (OP) has been defined as the ability of an organisation to
achieve pre-determined goals and objectives like high profitability, quality products and
services, large market share, excellent financial results and stability and sustainability.
OP can also be measured against rivals in the same environment where growth,
market share, profit, development and brand can make a difference. (Obiwuru et al.,
2011: 101)

19
Numerous studies have been done on OP (Insync Surveys (Pty) Ltd, 2012; The
Institute for Employment Studies, 2015; Tamkin P, 2005; Dess and Robinson, 1984).
Researchers constantly include performance of an organisation when investigating
organisational structures, strategy and planning. It has been identified by Dess and
Robinson (1984: 265) that OP must address two basic issues being “the selection of a
conceptual framework from which to define OP and the identification of accurate,
available measures that operationalises OP”.
Dess and Robinson (1984: 265) went further saying that nevertheless of the structure
chosen to conceptualise OP, it is evident that OP is a complex concept and inherent
difficult to research and even when focussing on economic dimensions researchers
frequently encounter difficulties in obtaining accurate results.
The Chain of Impact Model (Tamkin P, 2005) was developed to measure the impact
of HR practices, psychological factors and employee capability on organisation
performance (Tamkin P, 2005). Innovation in this model relates to enhanced practices,
processes, products and services. These enhancements drive productivity and
profitability. In the case of a municipality, when measuring performance, the goal is to
maximize the beneficial impact on society.
The atrociousness and diversity of challenges which the CJMM faces include, among
others, “poor productivity, high levels of absenteeism, diversity management, poor
leadership, corruption, unhappy staff, and lack of transformation, and they inform the
construction, classification and comprehending of applicable principal organisational
behavioural concepts”. These factors and uncertainties in the CJMM could be implicitly
resolved only if management in the municipal environment comprised of people with
proper qualifications and experience, excellent personal skills, general ability and the
right attitude for the job to improve organisational performance (Opperman, 2007: 69).
This study would explore reasons for these concepts in the CJMM to assist the CJMM
to improve performance in the future.
The literature discussions above will provide an opportunity and basis for the proposed
research to further unpack issues to enrich and enhance the study.

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6 HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
6.1 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT
Bandura, (1986) defined successful leaders as individuals who are able to motivate,
invigorate and to empower others. As employees are enthusiastic and empowered,
their ability to perform their duties increase as it positively affects their “task initiation
and task persistence”. He went further stating that empowered people “get more
involved, take on more difficult situations, and act more confidently”. Empowered
people thus work harder, use more effort and are more determined to complete their
tasks. Leaders with empowerment skills can transfer their ability to their subordinates
with greater ease and confidence. (Personal Success and Leadership Institute, 2000).
Leaders are expected to eradicate and reject leadership styles that controls and
dominates employees which historically assisted them to take charge and act powerful.
These disempowering behaviours “often result in personal feelings of insecurity or as
a result of environmental forces” (Gurden, Crissman and Susan, 1992: 6). A critical
part of this process is to assist leaders to have a better understanding of their inner
self, their behaviour and actions and the impact of their actions on others. (Gurden,
Crissman and Susan, 1992: 6). It is thus critical that managers have leadership skills
that can empower employees.
The central question is how can leaders obtain the skills to empower, motivate and
activate people? To gain the necessary leadership skills a manager should look at
“personal empowerment” which is a critical, fundamental skill, concerned with self-
preservation (SkillsYouNeed, 2015). “Personal development skills enable an
individual to set personal goals and to achieve personal empowerment”
(SkillsYouNeed, 2015).
A strong, effective and efficient leader can be developed through training in personal
development. These skills will assist the manager make appropriate and positive
choices and decisions in the future. Some of these skills are: assertiveness for self-
development; time management; stress and stress Management to balance work-
life; anger, anger management and aggression which can be activated for example
by stress, defeat and feelings of wrong-doing. (SkillsYouNeed, 2015)

21
Other important management skills includes, Project Management; Change
Management, Delegation and Risk Management (SkillsYouNeed, 2015).
Kuokkanen and Leino-Kilpi (2000) in Stander and Rothmann, (2009: 196) differentiate
between three approaches to empowerment: the feministic theory, structural
empowerment, and psychological empowerment, which is all based on empowering of
employees.
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H1: There is a positive relationship between leadership skills and leadership
empowerment in the CJMM.
6.2 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY
“New awareness of the significance of spirituality contributes to the improvement in
innovative and creative abilities of human capital, improved authenticity in
communication and increased ethical and moral behaviour” (Naidoo, 2014: 1). As
organisations wish for increased employee commitment Naidoo’s (2014: 1) research
includes dimensions of the emotions and inner self that, traditionally have been ignored
in organisations.
“Workplace spiritualityhas potential for leadershipdevelopment as it allows employees
and leaders to act from personal truth, integrity, values and ethical practice”. Spiritual
leadership includes not only the leader, but the follower and entails looking into
fundamental needs of both, so that they become more organisationally committed and
productive. (Naidoo, 2014).
Naidoo (2014: 1) goes further saying that “with the accelerating force of global, societal
and organisational change comes the call for a more holistic leadership that integrates
the four fundamental arenas that define the essence of human existence: body
(physical), mind (logical or rational thought), heart (emotions, feelings) and spirit”.

22
McKee et al., (2011) stated that spiritual leadership is a critical ingredient to enable
continued success of an organisation and successful transformation initiatives to
guarantee a competitive advantage in today’s market environment.
Empirical research on leadership usually focus on “leadership behaviours, power
dimensions, traits, skills and situational contexts. Lately new areas of research have
emerged that recognise leadership as the manifestation of a leader’s spiritual core”
(Naidoo, 2014: 8). These theories also studied leadership as a collective phenomenon
(Ashmos and Duchon, 2000), including the concern of leaders with employees’
intellectual, inquisitive, observing, appreciating and a teamwork abilities (Naidoo, 2014:
8).
These studies suggest that the spiritual domain is an essential element of leadership
and highlight spirituality as critical component in the integrated leadership development
model (Sanders, Hopkins and Geroy, 2003). In principle this integrated model
describes that as development transpires, a shift occurs demonstrating higher levels
of internal locus of control whereby human growth is accomplished through interaction
of individuals, the community and the environment. This support the notion that
leadership skills positively influences employee workplace spirituality. (Naidoo, 2014:
8).
H2: There is a positive relationship between leadershipskills and employeeworkplace
spirituality in the CJMM.
6.3 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Goleman (2003: 229) said that “IQ and technical skills are vital, but emotional
intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership”.
The most effective and efficient leaders are similar in one critical way: they all poses
a high degree of emotional intelligence (EI). The components of EI are self-awareness,
self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. These components enable the

23
leader to motivate and drive employees to achieve their objectives as the leader will
be able to:
 Recognize and appreciate his moods, emotions, and drives, as well as their
effect on others;
 Control and redirect disturbing impulses and moods and think before he acts;
 Have passion, working for motives that go beyond money or status and he will
have a tendency to chase goals with energy and persistence;
 Have the aptitude to comprehend the emotional side of people and treat them
in line with their emotional reactions; and
 Be proficient in managing relationships and building networks which create
motivation, trust, loyalty and commitment (Goleman, 2003: 240)
In the article of the Personal Success and Leadership Institute (2000) they refer to the
research of Bandura, (1986) and highlights the fact that that coaching and counselling.
The leader should be able to direct, support and guide employees to be motivated to
master their tasks and achieve their objectives. Employees will feel more motivated
and proficient when they are empowered intellectually. (Personal Success and
Leadership Institute, 2000). Another vital skill is that of oral persuasion and
motivation. The leader should also be a successful role-model from which employees
can observe and learn. (Bandura, 1986).
Motivation is related with high levels of levels of employee participation which consist
of decision making; sharing of information; informal leadership projects; prospects to
increase responsibilities and an opportunity to apply knowledge and talents. It has
been proven that the level of employee motivation is directly associated to the value
and quality of work output which is directly associated with leadership effectiveness.
(Whitaker, 2012).
H3: There is a positive relationship between leadershipskills and employeeworkplace
spirituality in the CJMM.

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6.4 LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT AND EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE
SPIRITUALITY
Empowering leadership is defined as the “leader’s empowering style of behaviour, as
well as the process of implementing conditions that increase employees’ feelings of
self-efficacy and control, leaving an employee with a feeling of power and motivation,
which will result in increased work effort and performance” (Ching, 2012: 8).
Korac-Kakabadse, (2002: 151) stated that ‘‘unless organisations harness the
complete, whole individual as well as the enormous spiritual energy that is the core of
everything, they will not be able to produce world-class products and services’’.
As leadership empowerment enables an employee to feel powerful, motivated and
committed (Ching, 2012: 8), the company should embrace the whole individual to
enable them to yield excellent performance (Korac-Kakabadse, 2002: 151).
H4: There is a positive relationship between leadership empowerment and employee
workplace spirituality in the CJMM.
6.5 LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Employee commitment and involvement, which boosts motivation is a key factor to
organisational currently (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196). Employee
empowerment on all hierarchical levels intensifies their sense of control and motivates
them to engage in tasks at work, which in turn yield positive managerial and
organisational outcomes. “Various studies have shown that psychological
empowerment mediates the relationship between structural empowerment and
innovative behaviour” (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196), and “between work
redesign and organisational commitment” (Chen and Chen, 2008).
Psychological empowerment has further been positively connected with performance,
content, satisfaction, creativity, innovation and initiative, embracing risks and coping
with uncertainty (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196).

25
Psychological empowerment relates directly to the time that leaders should spend on
“getting to know people, setting targets, identifying development needs, facilitating
personal developmentplans and givingpositive and corrective feedback” (Stander and
Rothmann, 2009: 202). These actions from leaders will result in an increase in
employees’ levels of self-efficacy, workplace spirituality and motivation, feeling that
they make a difference in the workplace.
H5: There is a positive relationship between leadership empowerment and
employee motivation in the CJMM.
6.6 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Workplace spirituality is defined as a “framework of organisational values that leads to
a sense of the divine existence and interconnectedness of all life, so that employees
experience personal fulfilment on the job” (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003: 99). “This
sense of divine existence, includes passion, the need for belonging and ownership, the
want to be part of the community and to have social connections which provides a
foundation for a theory of workplace spirituality. Workplace spirituality is thus
encompassed within an all-inclusive framework of entwined cultural, organisational
and personal values.
Workplace spirituality influences “motivation, performance, productivity and other
relevant effectiveness and performance criteria” (Naidoo, 2014: 2 - 3). Evidence exists
that supports a correlation between workplace spirituality and enhanced individual
creativity (Naidoo, 2014: 2), improved motivation, honesty and trust (Giacalone and
Jurkiewicz, 2003; Fry and Slocum, 2008), and a greater sense of individual fulfilment
(Burack, 1999), as well as increased performance and commitment to organisational
goals (McKee et al., 2011).
H6: There is a positive relationship between Employee workplace spirituality and
Employee motivation in the CJMM.

26
6.7 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR
Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, (2003: 426) defines workplace spirituality as “the
recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community”.
Employee workplace spirituality thus refers to the manner in which we express our
spirituality at the workplace, both for personal support and also in ethical, just decision
making (Donnenwirth, 2013: 2). Rapid change and workplace uncertainty can unsettle
an employees’ sense of stability which result in workers seeking for the inner centre of
spirituality which can impact on their behaviour. (Donnenwirth, 2013: 5).
Individuals consist of body, mind, heart and spirit (Fry, 2003) and this have developed
the concept that the human, spiritual, and natural sides of individuals cannot be
disjointed and therefore theories are constructed and verified based on spirituality in
the workplace. (Suárez, 2015: 9).
Elements that create citizenship are “satisfied workers; transformational and
supportive leadership; interesting work and job involvement; trust; organisational
justice; psychological contract fulfilment; organisational support; employee
characteristics; human resource management practices that accentuate good
citizenship and fair and transparent recruitment and selection processes, training and
development and informal systems encouraging ECB” (Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61 -
65).
H7: There is a positive relationship between Employee workplace spirituality and
Employee citizenship behaviour in the CJMM.
6.8 EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
ECB has a robust relation with individual, team and organisational performance which
influences the overall productivity of the organisation. Studies have revealed that an

27
individual’s motivation can be related to their ECB citizenship behavior and
consequently significant relationships have been found between employee ECB’s and
their sources of motivation (Raghoebarsing, 2011: 2).
According to Raghoebarsing, (2011: 8) statistics revealed a significant correlation
between three measures of motivation and employee citizenship behavior.
Raghoebarsing, (2011: 8) went further indicating that various other researchers found
a significant correlation between sources of motivation and leaders behaviors, a
relationship between “sources of motivation and leader-used influence tactics,
transformational leadership behaviors and follower compliance” (Barbuto and Scholl,
1999; Barbuto, Fritz and Marx, 2000).
Employee’s intentions may drive their behavior, but also their discretionary, non-task
behaviors. Content-based motivation theories are generally constructed on Maslow’s
(1943) hierarchy of needs model. The mostly used and accepted grouping of work-
related motivation theories are those of McClelland’s (1961, 1985) model of categories
of motivation (Raghoebarsing, 2011: 20).
Raghoebarsing, (2011: 21) went further identifying that Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl
(1999) found a “new model of motivation sources, drawn from existing literature, which
consist of five elements, namely: intrinsic process, instrumental, self-concept-external,
self-concept-internal, and goal internalization”. This theory links directly with ECB as
they are both focused on the individual and the behaviour in terms of their inner self.
H8: There is a positive relationship between Employee motivation and Employee
citizenship behaviour in the CJMM.
6.9 EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AND ORGANISATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
Organisational change originates with an inclination of leaders to study their personal
values and behaviours. It is vital to recognise the down side of leadership: “power,
greed, the lure of wealth and the temptation to self-delusion, over-control and vanity”

28
(Naidoo, 2014: 6). Four essential leader personality traits that followers respect and
which increases the credibility of the leader in motivating employees to perform include
honesty, being progressive, inspiring in a quest of a shared vision, and proficiency,
skills and capabilities (Kouzes and Pozner, 1993). When employees see their leader
having high credibility, they are significantly more inclined to be organisationally
committed and productive and thus their ECB will result in higher organisational
performance. (Naidoo, 2014: 6)
ECB is an efficient and effective method of applying human capital to regulate
organisational performance where people achieve their objectives. ECB is an
important source of a sustainable competitive advantage. It is vital for organisations to
perform optimally that employees perform additional activities that are not officially
written down as this behaviour contributes to high productivity and excellence
H9: There is a positive relationship between Employee citizenship behaviour and
Organisational performance in the CJMM.
6.10 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Drawing from the literature, in particular the literature discussed above, a research
model was conceptualised, and hypothesised relationships between the research
variables were developed. Figure 1 below illustrates the proposed conceptual model.

29
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
Source: Researcher’s Conception
7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A research design consists of a processes in which the research is done. According to
Creswell (2014), a research design is a “plan for construction conceptual research
problems to the pertinent empirical research”. The researcher further highlights the
significance of comprehending the type of data required, the means of collecting this
data and processes analysing the data and how this relates to obtaining the results
required in order to answer the research question.
7.2 RESEARCH STRATEGY
A research strategy includes the tools and mechanisms that are accepted by the
researcher in addressing the research question. According to Saunders et al., (2007),
an applicable approach should enable the researcher to response to the research
question and attain the research objectives. The seven research strategies which are
not mutually exclusive and are applied in research works are: surveys; experiments;
grounded theories; ethnographies; archival and action research and case studies. The
researcher will develop, structured, close-ended questionnaires to have control and
guidance for answers, consisting of a list of predetermined answers from which

30
partakers can choose. (Nouri, 2012: 23-24). These questionnaires will be e-mailed to
CJMM employees due to the wide geographical area and various departments that
must be included in the research study.
7.3 RESEARCH APPROACH
Research is defined “as a comprehensive and careful revision and investigation, in
order to find new facts or information” (Nouri, 2012: 3). The philosophy paradigm that
will be applied in this study, is the positivism methodology, utilising the quantitative
research approach. The quantitative research design is based on “the fact that findings
are objective, reliable, valid and reproducible” (Curtis and Drennan, 2013: 133). The
researcher propose to explore factors in the CJMM that affect organisational
performance with the intention to propose different tools, policies, processes or
methods to efficiency and effectiveness.
A quantitative approach is perceived as comprehensive and applicable to these
research scenarios in which the research concepts and phenomena of interest are
defined well and the relationships between the variables are established. The
qualitative approach is predominantly applicable where the research can be
embedded in present theories in order to identify an analytical model and/or
hypotheses a priori and tested through the research. Quantitative methods are also
appropriate where the study need to develop and empirically test quantifiable
measures of new variables. (Morris, 2009: 88 - 90).
It is the researcher’s opinion that the abovementioned features of quantitative
research design are appropriate for this study to add value to the proposed research
analysis.
7.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, (1997: 201) define research methodology as a
“technique with unambiguous rules and procedures upon which research is created
and against which claims for knowledge are appraised”. Denzin and Lincoln, (2000:
20) determined that research methodologies are “a system of investigation and
analysis that give direction to a set of processes”.

31
Comprehending and applying a relevant research methodology into the study is vital
in order to pinpoint the unit of analysis and use compatible methods that will provide
the intended results.
The research methodology will comprise of the following distinct phases:
7.4.1 Internalizing the research questions
7.4.2 Collection of data from the questionnaires of the target population, and
7.4.3 Distribution of the questionnaires
7.5 RESEARCH POPULATION
The population as described by Burns, Grove and Gray, (2013: 776, 779) refers to all
“individuals that meet the sample criteria for inclusion in the study whereby sample
refers to a split of the population that is selected for the study”. Officials working within
the CJMM will form the main body of the population for this research study.
7.6 SAMPLING
A sample is a subset, part or measurement of the total population. Due to the large
population within the CJMM, the researchers’ target population is very large and
unmanageable, and thus a sample in the core departments will be selected to study
and understand the target population. Sampling is viewed as a “rational method of
making statements regarding the total population, based on the findings about a
smaller population”. (Regenesys Business School, 2013: 39 - 42).
A sampling frame is a complete list in which each unit of analysis is mentioned only
once (Welman, Kruger and Mitchell, 2005: 57). It is impossible to judge the
representativeness of the sampling frame until a complete listing of the population is
available and therefore the researcher will be requested an extraction of CJMM
employees from the Human Resources Department.
7.7 SAMPLING METHODOLOGY
As time and resource constraints will be an element in deciding which employees to
use for the questionnaires, the researcher will opt to target employees in Core regions
of the CJMM utilising purposive and simple random sampling techniques to gather
data.

32
Simple random sampling is the most basic of the probability sampling methods, the
target population is defined, the sampling frame is established and each element of
the sampling frame has an equal chance of being included in the sample. There are a
number of simple random methods, such as the lottery technique (fishbowl technique)
and the random number table (Maree and Pietersen, 2012: 172 - 174).
The researcher will apply a simple random number sampling technique to enable equal
chance of selecting the customers whilst the purposive sampling would be used due
to the sensitive nature of seeking to get the views of CJMM employees.
7.8 SAMPLE SIZE
The CJMM in has approximately 6,000 employees. The researcher will select
approximately a sample of 1,300 employees (The Research Advisors, 2006).
7.9 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
The researcher will develop structured questionnaires to have control and guidance for
answers. These will be closed-ended questions and will consist of a list of
predetermined answers from which participants can choose. (Nouri, 2012: 23-24).
These questionnaires will be given to CJMM employees.
The questionnaires distributed to candidates will contain the same questions which
they have to complete in the same order (Sappsford and Japp, 2006: 97). The
questionnaires will comprise of a list of questions that formed the basis for the research
objectives.
7.10 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
The researcher will select a data collection procedure bearing in mind its overall
suitability to the research, along with other “useful factors, such as the expected quality
of the collected data, the estimated costs, the predicted non-response rate, the
expected level of errors and the length of the data collection period” (Biemer et al.,
1991).
All approaches for data collection necessitate some structure and the estimate is
between highly- and less-structured methods. “Highly structured methods, where
questions are involved, require a careful methodology in order to retain the interest and

33
attention of the candidate” (Sappsford and Japp, 2006: 57, 93-97). Primary data will
be collected for the research via e-mails.
The researcher will, after collection of the completed questionnaires, examine possible
relations between leadership skills and -empowerment, employee workplace
spirituality and –motivation and employee citizenship behaviour which impacts on
organisational performance in line with the objectives of the research proposal.
It is vital that the researcher to comprehends the organisational culture in the CJMM
which is severely informed by the organisational structures and influenced by political
decisions. Culture can also have a large impact on employee motivation and
performance in the CJMM. In addition, there are several operational functions and
systems within the CJMM which may impact on employee workplace spirituality and –
citizenship behaviour. These numerous processes are part of the value chain of the
CJMM and are a key factor in meeting objectives.
8 DATA ANALYSIS APPROCH
Data analysis is seen as a critical undertaking that require precision to ensure high
scoring and accurate research work. Statistical analysis contains the means to reduce
large sets of data into more practical and comprehensible sets, making it easier to
interpret.
This study will use a two-step technique to analyse data collected on the research
constructs as presented by Chinomona (2013). The first phase is where the precision
of multi-item construct measures will be evaluated, followed by a test of the research
model and hypotheses. In these data analysis stages, this proposed study leans
towards the use of the structural equation modelling technique (SEM). A confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) will be performed thereafter to test the measurement models for
overall goodness of fit (Hooper, Coughlan and Mullen, 2008). In addition, model fit
assessments would be used, including χ2 which is the ratio of chi-square value over
degree of freedom (χ2/df), the values of Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted
goodness of fit index (AGFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI),
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI).

34
8.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
The classifying element of good research is the reliability and validity of the data.
Notwithstanding the research approach, “the purpose of validity is to examine the
quality of the data and the outcome or results” (Thompson, 2010: 54 - 55). In
quantitative research this suggests that the researcher can pull important conclusions
from the results to a population, whilst reliability means that participant scores are
reliable and constant.
Thompson (2010: 54) further said that reliability is a study of the stability between a set
of independent observations that are interchangeable and can be defined as “the
degree to which test scores are free from errors of measurement” where measurement
errors reduce reliability and thus the generalisation of the results obtained for a
researcher from a distinct measurement.
This proposed study will use two tests to assess reliability, namely composite reliability
(CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). As data analysis involve structural
equation modelling (SEM), for purposes of confirming reliability (Hair (Jnr) et al., 2009)
suggested using CR. CR computes internal consistency at an item level, using factor
loadings from individual items produced from a structural model (Kline, 1998).
Validity refers to the relevance, suitability and practicality of evidence that is used to
back understandings. Decisions taken and actions based on the assessment scores
also contribute to validity. Therefore, establishing validity for a survey testing focuses
on the use to which the instrument is put and not on the study itself. (Thompson, 2010:
54). Validating and authenticating the research will include collecting evidence for
assumptions with regards to the influence of leadership on employee workplace
spirituality, motivation, citizenship behaviour and organisational performance.
8.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In collecting the data to achieve the objectives of this study, it will be important to place
emphasis on ethics.
The research will be guided by the principles of:
(a) The right to freedom of choice, expression and access to information;
(b) The right to privacy, confidentiality and anonymity of the interviewees;

35
(c) Informed consent by population;
(d) Strive to achieve and maintain a professional level of competence at all times;
(e) Be responsible and act with integrity;
(f) Be authentic, honest and true;
(g) Avoid conflicts of interest at all times and handle conflict situations constructively
(Cummings and Worley, 2009: 70-72).
The researcher will make sure that the target population is educated regarding the
research objectives and that consent is obtained to distribute and complete
questionnaires for the research project. Participants will be informed on the approach
which will protect their confidentiality and privacy by issuing a cover letter and
thereafter verbally during the interview processes. The right to freedom of choice,
expression and access to information will be guaranteed through voluntary participant
involvement; with a choice to withdraw or terminate their participation in the research
at any time without fear of prejudice.
9 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION
The dissertation will be structured as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction and background to the study
Chapter 2: Research context
Chapter 3: Literature Review: Theoretical framework and Empirical Evidence
Chapter 4: Conceptual Model and Hypothesis Development
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 6: Data Analysis
Chapter 7: Discussion and Presentation
Chapter 8: Conclusions and recommendations.

36
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