Ex Ed English- research paper

EXPERIENTIAL ENGLISH 1
A Review of the Need and Impact of Experiential Teaching Methodologies in Secondary
English Language Arts Education
by
Ben Pendarvis
Minnesota State University, Mankato
ExEd 645: Research Problems in Experiential Education
April 11, 2011

Abstract
Contemporary English education must offer new types of learning to engage all public high
school students who live in a society facing new forms of literacy. In this literature review,
several English/Language Arts teaching practices and/or programs that employed
experiential teaching methodologies document the success of these practices. Official
forms of experiential methods, including project-based learning, place-based learning,
service learning, and active learning, provide a context for alternative secondary English
teaching methods as well as address the growing needs of students in the 21st century.
Particular focus is placed on the crucial components in the design of the curricula in order
that they may be transferable to other secondary English teachers and students.

Introduction
Background of the Problem
Behavioral psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci helped define a student’s
range of motivations for learning in school and in life. In 2000 they revisited emergent
research concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in regards to educational practices.
Specifically, a student exhibiting intrinsic motivation calls forth the highest potential in
achievement but does so in direct relation to the amount of autonomy (choice,
responsibility), competence (understanding of content, self-esteem), and relatedness
(belongingness, trust in others) the student perceives in the environment. Furthermore, a
student that does not find a lesson or activity inherently interesting can still be motivated
to his or her highest potential as long as these three factors of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness are perceived to be present (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Recently, researchers at the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research reported the
national public high school graduation rate to be near seventy percent, which means nearly
one-third of all students entering high school do not graduate. Concerning minority
students, the number of graduates drops significantly to almost half of African American or
Latino students. This decision affects not only students’ chances for success with access to
well-paying jobs and supportive family environments but our children’s personal and
economic health in general (Greene & Winters, 2006).
In a report issued by Civic Enterprises, researchers interviewed dropouts
themselves to gather the context for their life-changing decisions. Through face-to-face
meetings and focus groups with diverse young adults, researchers discovered that as much
as 88% of the sample had passing grades and almost half identified a lack of interest in the

teaching content as a reason for dropping out. In addition, dropouts reported a lack of
motivation due to a perception that teachers did not hold high standards for them
(Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006).
Similar responses were found in informal discussions between Experiential
Education professors and college students, who had a hard time finding relevance and
motivation in their high school experiences (Wurdinger & Carlson, 2009). Wurdinger and
Carlson also note the impact of No Child Left Behind on secondary school teachers, who
may be forced to restrict their teaching methods to the content prescribed by standardized
tests, promoting lower level thinking skills in their students (p. 3).
These discoveries coincided with research clarifying the impact of standardized
tests on student learning. In 2006 Bob Ives and Kathryn Obenchain responded to research
that found standardized testing to measure mostly lower-order thinking. Ives and
Obenchain (2006) conducted a pre/post-test survey of senior high school students learning
from three different teachers to measure their “lower-order knowledge and skills (e.g.,
recall and comprehension) as opposed to higher-order thinking (e.g., analysis, synthesis,
evaluation)” (as cited in Ives & Obenchain, p. 62). Ives and Obenchain intended to assess
the teaching methodology’s impact on both types of skills. Results showed that an
experiential teaching methodology prompted a gain in students’ higher-order thinking
abilities without losing any of their lower-order knowledge.
Specifically, the English and/or Language Arts field in education must evolve its
standards of teaching and learning alongside changes in society’s needs for particular
literacy skills (Myers, 1996). A National Council for Teachers of English Executive Director,
Miles Myers, elaborated on this point in 1996 by noting the focus of English education

through the twentieth century on a “decoding/analytic literacy” (p. xi). In Myer’s view, our
nation’s students succeeded in demonstrating this particular form of literacy, whose goals
involve a similar measure of lower-order skills, as described before, such as recall and
comprehension with a variety of texts and text responses. In his book, Changing Our Minds,
Myers argued that our present culture had changed to the extent that these goals were no
longer adequate for a “proficient” high school graduate entering college or the workforce at
the time (p. 1). He called the necessary contemporary standard for students a
translation/critical literacy, which reflects higher order skills such as metacognitive
awareness and experimentation with a broader set of literacy tools and student
experiences.
Purpose
The purpose of this research is to examine secondary English/Language Arts
education employing experiential teaching methodologies and highlight the effective
components of these practices to provide a foundation for teaching secondary
English/Language Arts experientially.
The literature review will be framed by these research questions:
1. What are some successful English/Language Arts experiential teaching
programs or practices?
2. What components of these programs were crucial to its design and impact on
student learning?
3. In what ways do experiential English Language Arts curricula affect students’
abilities to be successful in further education and/or the work force?

Key Terms
Experiential education. The practice of teaching that seeks to use experiences co-
created by teacher and student as the context for intellectual and personal exploration and
discovery (O’Steen, 2000, p. 3).
Adventure education. Methodology encouraging risk and challenge in educational
experiences (Miles & Priest, 1990).
Project-based learning. “An instructional method that uses projects as the central
focus of learning in a variety of disciplines” (Buck Institute for Education, 2003, p. ix).
Place-based learning. An instructional method that integrates the community with
the school in its curriculum and in its students perception of their place (Lane-Zucker,
2004).
Service learning. An instructional method where students use academic content to
reflect on the meaning of a project serving the local community (Cress, Collier, Reitenauer,
& Associates, 2005).
At-risk students. Students that are “most likely to fail or drop out” due to
disadvantaged conditions in the educational context of school, family, and community
(Carter, 2008, n.p.).
School-within-a-school. “The holistic implementation of a curriculum to a smaller
group of students within a school” (O’Steen, 2000, p. 5).
Review of Literature on Experiential English Education
History
In 1974, Arthur Applebee outlined the history of English education as a foundation
for continuing to grow the discipline. According to Applebee (1974), John Dewey’s

educational theories in the early twentieth century contributed to secondary English
education by freeing the high school curriculum from the restraints of requirements
outlined by college examination boards (p. 48). The college requirements had focused on a
rigid, intellectual model based on the knowledge and use of a specified literary canon
devoted to major writers such as John Milton, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William
Shakespeare, among others (p. 50). Applebee identifies three broad ways in which Dewey
affected English education:
First was the conception of reform through education as part of an intentionally
progressive society…. Second was the rejection of the traditional body of literature
and history as the sole purveyors of culture…. Finally, there was Dewey’s conviction
that democracy demands education in the problems of living together for all in their
community…. (Applebee, 1974, p. 48)
Not only did Dewey’s ideas change the form of English education, they also offered a
framework for reorganizing the school curriculum around experience-based learning.
In 1935, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), under the leadership of
Wilbur Hatfield, published An Experience Curriculum in English. This pattern curriculum
sought to focus the teaching of English on experience strands where specific experiences of
the teacher and/or students would provide the basis for a unit of study. NCTE wrote in
1935, “The school of experience is the only one which will develop the flexibility and power
of self-direction requisite for successful living in our age of swift industrial, social, and
economic change” (p. 3). The report followed Dewey’s educational theories closely by
suggesting that the teacher use specific experiences from the student’s life outside the
classroom while also presenting the students with educational experiences outside the

class, then linking the experiences in an orderly and cumulative building of technical and
social knowledge. English was seen as inherently interdisciplinary and required adapting
instruction to the needs and progress of each individual. The report even expressed a
guiding philosophy for the school on the whole noting, “The school must manage a
functional combination of the dynamic experiences of active life and the intellectual
activities which have been the teacher’s concern” (p. 12).
Seventy five years later Brian Casemore wrote another summary approaching the
history of English education reflected on the significance of the Anglo-American seminar on
English education at Dartmouth College in 1966. In his article Casemore describes the
development of a personal growth model from the nation’s English teachers. The model
centered on creativity and subjective responses to literature, which led to an “era of
experimentation” in English education in the 1960s and 70s and reflected the progressive
model developed by Dewey and Hatfield in the 1930s and 40s. However, the publication of
A Nation at Risk in 1983 triggered a series of educational reform initiatives that continues
to the present day, hindering the English teachers’ focus on adapting the curriculum.
Moreover, the focus on standardized testing to measure student achievement further
complicated the capacity for English educators to build out a curriculum that complements
society’s myriad changes in the 21st century (n.p.).
In comparison Judith Franzak (2008) reiterates much of Miles Myer’s goals with
translation/critical literacy standards, yet she also emphasizes the effects of standardized
testing stating, “Currently, there is little congruence between the assessments and the
complex realities of being a competent literacy user in contemporary society” (n.p.).

Experiential English Dissertation
The most recent comprehensive research detailing the implementation of an
experiential English program in a secondary school setting is William O’Steen’s dissertation
in 2000. In this study, a school-within-a-school adopted the Outward Bound (OB) program
as the guiding curriculum for teaching middle school English and Social Studies. Outward
Bound is an outdoor and adventure education program designed by Kurt Hahn whose
mission to educate youth boiled down to what a researcher on Hahn and OB termed the
Four Pillars of Physical Fitness, Quality of Work, Self-Reliance, and Compassion. These
elements guided the implementation of the “Green Program” in a Virginia middle school (p.
22).
O’Steen used interviews and written reflections by the participants (students and
teachers/administrators) to determine the significant elements of the program activities
for the students. Activities included field trips to a ropes course, National Park, and
National Seashore, as well as in-class activities such as journaling, producing a newsletter
for alumni, reading the novel Night, and pen pal correspondence (p. 121).
Jackson Woods (English teacher’s pseudonym) and Raoul Hennessee
(creator/Director/Social Studies teacher’s pseudonym) used English as the pivotal unit of
study for the program. Through the metaphor of storytelling the teachers encouraged the
students to make meaning of their learning through the creation of their own stories.
Storytelling provided a context for the particular English standards for middle school
students of “sustained reading, reading comprehension, and vocabulary expansion” (p.
124). Woods described the complication inherent to teaching experientially within a
traditional school structure this way:

We spend so much time writing and so much time reading that it’s hard to really
break and do a paper and pencil summative test on drama to fit it in. They’re
learning to read. They’re learning to write. We process. We reflect. We do
grammar. They’re getting it but they’re not getting it in the discrete little pieces. It’s
not like we did a unit on commas. Personally, I think that’s more real life…Out of 24
eighth graders, I probably have five who are on the post high school, 11th or 12th
grade reading level and I probably have four or five who are fourth grade or below.
And if you’re teaching a unit on capitalization in the traditional sense in the
classroom, you’d lose them. There would be no way you could hold them all
together. But if you’re doing it in writing and journaling and reading response logs,
kids can do it at their own levels. (as cited in O’Steen, 2000, p. 126-127)
To address the issue of personal progression Woods allowed students to test out of units
required by the standards. Those who knew it moved on, those who needed more help
stayed with it (p. 127).
The results of this study lend themselves to the research questions and included the
effects of Outward Bound in the classroom, the ways the students and teachers experienced
English differently, the elements that students identified as “important or superfluous,” (p.
224) and the elements that seem useful to other secondary English teachers. The concepts
of note that arose in implementation were the students’ abilities to transfer their
knowledge to real-life contexts, usually involving the newsletter articles and how they
experienced activities as a result, the metacognitive strategies that emerged as a result of
storytelling and intentional reflection, and the presence of “English as a ubiquitous

subject,” (p. 229) which educators such as Dewey, Hatfield, and Myers identify as a strength
of the English discipline.
More importantly, the elements O’Steen recognized as transferable to other English
teachers were choice; community, which includes membership, teamwork, and trust;
journaling and storytelling; mobile learning units, or the idea that the broader community
can serve to open the classroom; multiple venues for learning and performance, as opposed
to test scores and participation in class; and the opportunities for “real” experiences, which
contains an element of chaos inherent to learning outside school walls.
Project based learning
Similar to the efforts put forth by the “Green Program” in O’Steen’s dissertation is
the well-known Foxfire program that began in 1966 in Rabun County, Georgia. Foxfire
founder, Eliot Wigginton, started the program in a secondary school as a way to engage
English students in a more direct experience of literacy learning involving the collection of
stories and interviews of the residents of their rural Appalachian community into a
student-produced magazine. The positive results of its implementation led to the creation
of a non-profit organization that manages the publications from the variety of programs in
operation and a museum to house the innumerable artifacts spawned by its participants
over forty years, whether student, teacher, faculty or community members (Foxfire, 2011).
The experiential methodology employed by Foxfire teachers and learners has been
capitulated into the Foxfire Core Practices for Education that educators in thirty-eight states
learned in extended retreats through Piedmont College in Georgia. The practices
enumerated in The Foxfire Approach reflect much of what has been outlined as inherent to
experiential education up to this point:

1. From the beginning, learner choice, design, and revision infuses the work
teachers and learners do together.
2. The work teachers and learners do together clearly manifests the attributes of
the academic disciplines involved, so those attributes become habits of mind.
3. The work teachers and students do together enables learners to make
connections between the classroom work, the surrounding communities, and the
world beyond their communities.
4. The teacher serves as facilitator and collaborator.
5. Active learning characterizes classroom activities.
6. The learning process entails imagination and creativity.
7. Classroom work includes peer teaching, small group work, and teamwork.
8. The work of the classroom serves audiences beyond the teacher, thereby
evoking the best efforts by the learners and providing feedback for improving
subsequent performances.
9. The work teachers and learners do together includes rigorous, ongoing
assessment and evaluation.
10. Reflection, an essential activity, takes place at key points throughout the work.
(Foxfire, 2011)
These practices revolve around the basic elements of student choice, the community as
classroom, and an audience beyond the teacher, while meeting the state and district
requirements for student work.

Where the Foxfire description offers a framework for the use of an extensive project,
Gail Simmons’ independent senior English program in Ontario, Canada, shows the
processes a teacher went through to employ such a project.
Before starting the project, Simmons went to the students and asked them their
personal views on what they considered the best teaching practices for bringing out their
greatest learning. Their answer sums up a major component of experiential teaching, “that
the curriculum was secondary to the methods of delivery; that learning happened when the
teacher instilled in students a desire to learn; that every meeting with their teacher and
peers should have personal meaning of some kind” (Simmons, 1995, p. 14). The Ontario
English curriculum required an independent project and the “vagueness of the mandated
English guidelines provided me with the opportunity to try out some of the [experiential]
methods…” (p. 15). The fact that the guidelines or standards of the curriculum provided an
outlet for experiential approaches makes a significant point for English teachers looking to
incorporate similar methods in their own class.
Simmons’ class of senior English students dove into personally meaningful topics
derived from the literature conveyed in class over the year and culminated in a written and
oral presentation. As a result, a student moved by societal issues surrounding old age
interviewed staff and residents of a local nursing home and came to her presentation
secretly transformed into an elderly woman who challenged the other students’ notions of
her abilities and contributions as a citizen. Another student examined the novel Don
Quixote in relation to humans’ development and use of windmills because of a personal
interest in physics and engineering. The culminating presentations created a deep sense of
pride in one’s work and the significance of a project that immerses students in real

experiences built from their own interests. Simmons admittedly transformed her approach
to teaching as a result by putting aside the “mandatory units” in favor of extra time and
effort in the realization “that real learning for [the students] will come when they are able
to internalize facts and ideas through personal experience” (p. 17-18).
Place-based Education
As experiential learning values the community as a resource, place-based education
uses the local community as a focal point. An English educator in rural Nebraska used
place-based learning not only for the students’ sake but as a response to the nation’s
dwindling rural schools due to changes in resources and enrollment. Sharon Bishop helped
form the School at the Center as a means for improving public education through the
Annenberg Rural Challenge that sought to create a lasting bond between the school and its
community. The schools were envisioned as a revitalizing force in declining rural
communities through “region-centered humanities, sustainable agriculture and regional
biological awareness, entrepreneurship training, development of sustainable local housing,
and region-centered math/science education” (as cited in Bishop, 2004, p. 64). In Bishop’s
class, English students came to recognize and build awareness of the community’s history
through “research, interviews, writing, and photography,” (p. 66) and built off its stories.
At the same time the formal literature of the curriculum sent students into the community
to learn about the local natural environment. As a result, Bishop described the learning
that took place this way:
The literature that we read, the stories collected from family and community, and
the stories from the places we visit allow students to develop critical-thinking skills.
They use these resources to create poetry, prose, and photography. They teach one

another through group experiments at the prairie and wetland and through
presentations based on that work. They understand that they will have an audience
beyond the classroom for the created products. We regularly create class-published
books and present displays and programs for the community. When students know
that a piece of writing represents a story entrusted to them in an oral heritage
interview, they are more careful writers. (p. 68)
Around the same time, V. Pauline Hodges created another place-based project
designed particularly for students at risk of not graduating due in part to deficient language
skills. The author had dedicated her education career to rural schools and discovered in
those places a lack of pride or sense of belongingness in their students. She used a similar
method of collecting the local stories of the small Oklahoma town to build an inclusive
community of students who read through an entire novel, conducted formal research
followed by oral presentations, and published an article for the local newspaper, firsts for
nearly all the students. The project “provided the students with the first steps of success,
language awareness, and a sense of belonging in the school and the community” (Hodges,
2004, p. 29).
Service Learning
One particular partnership with the community provided the impetus for a service
learning project gradually integrated into parts of the curriculum of a middle and high
school in Oklahoma. Two senior English teachers put together a concerted effort to
address a local environmental issue regarding the toxic waste buildup in the surrounding
area, which was affecting the health of its citizens and had come to be designated an EPA
Superfund site. Through the environmental activism of the school Guidance counselor and

collaboration with the Cherokee Volunteers, a local service organization backed by the
Cherokee Nation, senior English classes published an anthology of topics grown out of the
local environmental issues. They then went on to develop a public awareness campaign
that included contacting government officials and participating in public forums such as
news organizations, City Council, community events, and local/state/national conferences.
Moreover, the Cherokee Volunteers and English students organized and hosted a public
event featuring professional speakers, local music, and family entertainment while using
the money to fund the various projects that made up their overall effort (Kesson & Oyler,
1999).
English was not the only integrated discipline; science classes learned how to
“collect water samples and monitor water quality” (p. 141), which led to a $20,000 EPA
grant to continue their contribution. Meanwhile, students from both subjects “engaged
with literature, chemistry, anatomy, zoology, environmental science, local history, geology,
poetry, journalism, civics and government, business skills, and economics” (p. 147).
Students themselves reported a developed sense of “manners,” which they interpreted to
arise through group learning and performance involving “holding meetings, working out
interpersonal conflicts, stating their opinions, and (most frequently noted of all) listening
to each other” (p. 146). Overall, the authors discovered a greater integration between
school and the community resulting in school teachers becoming co-learners, “facilitators
of ethical discussions and co-investigators of specific, contextualized understandings” (p.
147).

Dewey’s Democracy and Classroom Environment
In a more specific interpretation of Dewey’s theories, Todd DeStigter (1998) noticed
a sharp contrast between the supports and senses of belongingness between different
socioeconomic groups of a Michigan high school. Using John Dewey’s “tenets for
democratizing pedagogy” (p. 15), DeStigter brought together English as a Second Language
(ESL) and at-risk students from an eleventh-grade American Literature class to
collaboratively interpret American literature pieces through the lens of their own
experiences. This ten-week project focused on the adolescents’ stories so that they might
“bring people together but…also allow for and value difference within communities as
essential to individual and social growth” (p. 17). DeStigter sets an example of the way the
experiential teaching philosophy as outlined by John Dewey can counter sociocultural
divides in a large school environment effected by a changing society. The students
exhibited a gain in their sense of belongingness while being allowed to display their
competence in ways they were not called for in other classrooms; in all activities, they were
given the choice of how to participate in the growing dialogue (DeStigter, 1998).
While the previous example’s students interacted in a new and different social and
psychological environment, one English teacher in Iowa rearranged his physical classroom
environment to better facilitate literacy learning according to research in spatial aspects of
learning and participation. Concepts highlighted by Kathryn Whitmore and Lindsay
Laurich (2010) included the importance of open and closed spatial designs and a space
which made available “literacy tools” that increased “students’ interests in literacy events,
and [sustained] students’ interactions with literacy tools” (p. 23).

With this background knowledge, the researchers “sought elements of the social and
learning space operating in the [video game] arcades to apply to educational settings” (p.
22). Principles of learning evident in arcade spatial arrangements ranged from inviting and
sustaining collaboration, creating “more equalized [power] structures where children can
perform agentic identities,” and reconstituting the children’s access to knowledge and their
use of the space (p. 27).
Throughout the process, Jeff, the English teacher, solicited the students’ ideas for
recreating the space. As a result of this direct engagement with the students brought on by
a change in the physical classroom, Jeff’s teaching philosophy and methodology changed to
accommodate the research findings and implications. For example, Jeff instituted a Literacy
Hour where the students had a variety of autonomous learning opportunities to engage
with individually or collaboratively (p. 29). Students were allowed to move more freely
during activities coupled with a collaborative change in the classroom rules, which
students managed themselves through participation in class committees governing various
parts of the classroom. Literacy tools such as books, magazines, computers, and art
supplies were made more widely and easily available while Jeff realized the importance of
giving students more responsibility and power in teaching each other and co-planning their
learning (Whitmore & Laurich, 2010).
21st Century Education
Delainia Haug, an English teacher in urban Minneapolis (2010), recognized a
growing need to address “motivation, engagement, and attendance” in her high-poverty
urban high school (p. 420). Haug keyed in on the literacy lives her students led outside of
school and conceived a digital media project that could encourage critical thinking and

deeper interdisciplinary knowledge bases for an “increasingly visual and global culture” (p.
420). As a result, she abandoned her traditional English curriculum in favor of a project-
based approach centered on the production and public presentation of a documentary film.
English and History state standards were met as students chose relevant topics to research,
viewed and analyzed multiple digital media, and created their own digital materials to
create “a space for students to represent their identities and demonstrate competence” (p.
418). Through this project the students gradually expanded their knowledge base on a
certain topic, collaborated and delivered to real audiences while being intellectually
challenged in what the researchers termed critical engagement as an adaptation of critical
literacy, which seeks to reflect a student’s deeper, emotional investment in the analysis of
texts. Students reported a keener sense of belonging coupled with high expectations and
accountability beyond the classroom, which allowed for a greater sense of “agency to
connect with their identities, communities, and interests outside of school” (p. 419).
Haug’s digital media project coincides with research in English education conducted
by field scholar Arthur Applebee in 2002 through the Center on English Learning and
Achievement. Drawing from this research and personal practice, Applebee outlined six
effective practices that, taken and addressed together, English teachers have succeeded in
using to confront the disengagement of students growing up in a new and different age.
These six practices are:
1) Engaging students in higher order talk and writing about the disciplines of
English
2) Ensuring the cohesiveness of curriculum and instruction
3) Using diverse perspectives to deepen discussion and enhance learning

4) Aligning curriculum with assessment
5) Scaffolding skills and strategies needed for new and difficult tasks
6) Providing special help to struggling readers and writers (p. 31)
Without knowing Haug’s specific assessment strategies, her project still exhibits the
majority of effective practices found in Applebee’s study. The scope of the two studies was
similar in that students in schools with traditionally underachieving and disadvantaged
populations served as samples.
Conclusion
English education continually changes to reflect broader societal needs and
perceptions of literacy. In the twentieth century, English education focused on a
decoding/analytic literacy that reflected society’s need for students to be knowledgeable
readers and writers. Meanwhile, public schools responded dramatically with increased
standards of learning and standardized testing procedures. This focus on standardized
testing led to an increase in students’ lower-order knowledge and a decrease in their
higher-order thinking.
Furthermore, high school students drop out in great numbers reportedly for the lack
of challenge and relevancy in their learning. Research on student motivation and
performance helps explain this occurrence by delineating three factors of a motivating
learning environment, in any context. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness label these
factors, yet also fit into Experiential Education theories and practices. Additionally, the
students’ contemporary culture now demands a higher-order literacy, labeled
critical/translation literacy, that involves developing metacognitive strategies and
experiences with multiple modes, or different forms, of texts.

The experiential English/Language Arts programs and practices described here
provide a clear set of guidelines for secondary English educators to use in their classrooms.
All of the practices revolve around specific themes such as student choice and
responsibility, using the broader community and real-life experiences as a resource,
creating a democratic learning environment and fostering civic participation and personal
growth. In addition, experiential teaching methodologies positively affect disadvantaged
and at-risk students as well as their higher-performing counterparts. This occurs through
supports and structures in the learning environment that encourage autonomy,
relatedness, and competence while reflecting the social culture of the students lives.
Specifically, higher order thinking and more sophisticated levels of knowing are required to
compete and learn successfully in contemporary society as well as produce healthy and
active democratic citizens.

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