Bridging Cultural Divides

© Paul Rattray Eastern and Western Worldviews in focus
Bridging cultural divides 27.1.05 Page 2
BRIDGING
BRIDGING
CULTURAL
DIVIDES
Eastern and Western
Worldviews in focus
PAUL RATTRAY
BRIDGING CULTURAL DIVIDES (Text Version)
By Paul Stewart Rattray
© ETC Indonesian Language and Business Services, 1998, Revised April 2013
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, without prior written permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations
embodied in referenced articles and reviews. For further information contact: Paul Rattray 26 Spring
Myrtle Avenue Qld 4560 Australia.
Tel: +61-(0)7 5441 4803 or 5477 1555 Fax: +61-(0)7 5477 1727 Mobile :0418 712 919

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Chapter 1 Backgrounds and Worldviews 5
Chapter 2 How Worldviews Effect Thinking 9
1. In Individuals 9
2. In Education 11
3. In Communication 13
4. In Organisation 15
Chapter 3 The Outworking Culture 19
1. In Relationships 19
2. In Business 22
3. In Management 28
4. In Politics 31
Chapter 4 Working Out Cultural Differences 33
1. In Feelings and Emotions 33
2. In Religion and Belief 35
3. In Ethics and Principles 37
4. In Language and Customs 39
Chapter 5 Overcoming Cultural Differences 43
1. In Learning Culture 43
2. In Talking Culture 47
3. In Transferring Culture 52
4. In Applying Culture 57
Epilogue 61
Bibliography 63

PREFACE
In this rapidly changing world, the notion of 'East and West' has become blurred as
we are physically brought together by technology and communications. Multiculturalism is
the new mantra for equality, but it's often an ideal, the reality being that when we are
threatened by change, we cling even more strongly to our 'cultural roots'. East has met
West. We live and work together, but do we understand each other?
The world has become a global village with hundreds of thousands of Easterners
moving to the West. In parts of Australia more people speak a first language other than
English. Thousands of Western expatriates now live and work in the East. Despite this
convergence of peoples, convergence of the minds seems to remain an ideal. In thinking,
East and West often seem as far apart as ever.
Yes, we are all part of the human race. We are not that different. But we think
differently. And as we think so we are. The stereotype of the arrogant Westerner and
inscrutable Easterner continues. This book attempts to bridge that cultural divide.
Understanding why we see things differently will help us to learn how to overcome these
differences in a mutually beneficial manner.
Oftentimes we compare the relative merits of our worldview against those of others.
However no people or culture is better than another, simply different. In the West we
admire a steady gaze, firm handshake and upright manner when greeting. In the East,
many cultures prefer a deferred manner, bowed head and pliant handshake. Both
greetings are expressions of mutual respect.
Indeed this example is stereotypical in itself, for there are numerous sub-cultures
within cultures. Each country is different. The aims of this book are: "To provide a
balanced perspective of Eastern and Western worldviews and deliver a practical means of
recognising and overcoming these cultural differences." To achieve this aim, this book has
been written in a unique way.
This approach doesn't look at Easterners and Westerners as specimens to be
studied, but represents views from each perspective. For me, this is perfectly natural, as I
am a mixture of two cultures, having grown up and lived in Indonesia for over 20 years,
then worked and studied in Australia. For this reason I have taken on the dual role of both
Easterner and Westerner, hence my use of "we", "us" and "our".
A worldview is a combination of similar cultures, not the specific cultural differences
say, between Australians and Indonesians. So, this book deals with generalisations by
using some culturally specific anecdotes. I trace the Eastern worldview to a largely
Hindu/Buddhist heritage. While North and Southeast Asians differ culturally, their
underlying thinking is similar. The same can be said for Westerners: Europeans, Americans
and Australians are culturally diverse, however they adhere to basic principles found in
Judaeo/Christian philosophy. Generalisations will help us see these differences more
clearly.

Due to our rapidly changing world, all cultures today are in transition. More Asian
students than ever before are studying in the West, learning to research, question and
debate long held views. Westerners in ever-increasing numbers are living and working with
Easterners, learning to define experiences and relationships based on time honoured
traditions. This interaction has produced some hybrid cultures (like me). English speaking
and educated Malaysians are a composite of East and West, as are Western followers of
Hindu and Buddhist New Age philosophies.
Change however is relative and often superficial. Beneath the surface, how we
think and react is still determined by our original culture. This means that a western-
educated Indonesian may know Western business principles, but continue to interpret them
in the Asian way. An Australian expatriate manager living and working in Indonesia may
know about Indonesian culture, yet continue to work in the Western way.
INTRODUCTION
Receiving a visit from some Western colleagues, Mr John Scott decides to take them
on-site to see how the new residential housing project is going. (All names have been
changed for privacy reasons). A few days ago he had mentioned to the site manager, Pak
(Mr) Suhardi, he would be coming to show his business colleagues the development. Pak
Suhardi had indicated that this was fine. No formal appointment was made, as they know
each other socially and work together.
Arriving at the construction site the foreman invites them to tour the development.
Not wanting to interrupt the obviously busy site manager (Pak Suhardi), John and his group
leisurely set off, stopping to talk with the builders and tradesmen while checking the overall
progress of the job. This enjoyable reverie is cut short by a request from Pak Suhardi for
John to come and see him in his office as soon as possible.
An obviously perturbed Pak Suhardi ushers John into his office, proceeding to
lambaste him for not bringing his guests to the office first and introducing them personally to
him. John explains that he knew Pak Suhardi was very busy and that the foreman had
invited the group to look around. He had intended to bring his colleagues back to Pak
Suhardi's office after the tour. Pak Suhardi counters that John had not shown him the
proper respect accorded by his position.
John is hurt and disappointed with Pak Suhardi's attitude. He had not wanted to
bother an obviously busy Pak Suhardi. Furthermore, Pak Suhardi already knew he was
coming on-site with his colleagues and had agreed to it. Pak Suhardi does not understand
why John is so insensitive, treating him as if he is inferior, whereas they are equals in status.
John should know by now that even when busy, Pak Suhardi should always be given the
chance to meet the guests and excuse himself.
Westerners can be so arrogant and insensitive when they want to be, they just never
seem to see things the way we do. Easterners are so inscrutable, always leaving things
unsaid and assuming that we should know what they mean. Now, how do we bridge this
cultural divide?

CHAPTER 1
Backgrounds and Worldviews
First of all we need to get back to basics and ask ourselves how we view reality. Do
we see ourselves as the key player, an individual seeking to understand the outside world
in order to shape our own destiny? Or, do we recognise the world as the great reality and
our holistic harmony within it as being the key to achieving our personal destiny? These
two fundamentally different approaches sum up the differences between Western and
Eastern worldviews.
Western Background and Worldview
Much of Western thinking is based upon Greek philosophy and the individual human
being's relationship to the world. Reality begins with man's personal interpretation of it
based upon empirical observation, exploration and verification. The Christian principle of
individual action through a personal faith in God, and God's command to subdue the earth,
was a further impetus for individual self-determination. Such rationalist philosophers as
Descartes and more recently Jean-Paul Sartre have further reinforced these principles.
It is not my intention to expand on these various systems of thinking any more than
is necessary to illustrate their influence on the current Western worldview. Descartes, who
lived from 1596 to 1650 made famous this statement: "I think therefore I am." Jean-Paul
Sartre continued this line of thinking with the words, "Man is nothing other than what he
makes himself."
In simple terms, these influential thinkers interpreted reality as beginning with the
individual person and their own existence. Reality thus becomes a personal responsibility
by virtue of the power of reason and logical deduction. We either make ourselves or, in a
sense, allow ourselves to be made by others. This view of reality is determined by our
personal interpretation of what we define reality to be. This viewpoint places man apart
from the world of reality outside as he tries to relate to it. This may be represented using
the following diagram:
A result of this thinking is the Western version of logic, which begins with doubt
rather than faith and becomes belief only if it can be substantiated. Rationalist
philosophers such as Aristotle, Descartes and Sartre held that one should not accept truth
as being absolute unless one clearly knows it to be so. Thus, to find truth one follows a
process of elimination, first identifying the subject to be examined, and then dividing it into
various parts. After moving from one part to another, proceeding from more simple to
complex, the whole process is reviewed to ensure that nothing has been left out.

By dividing reality into parts, conclusions can be drawn about a concept as a whole.
This process involves logical thought by employing principles of cause and effect is known
as the scientific method. It is widely credited for the advanced economic and technological
development of the West. The following illustration describes this thinking:
Such thinking moves from A to B to C to D in logical progression. When applied to
reality, the sum total of the parts defines the whole. Thus Western philosophy seeks to unite
many parts into a oneness that explains and integrates the many. The heavy emphasis on
reason in understanding life and the universe has seen Western thinking compartmentalised.
Even individual psyche can be divided into thinking, feeling and will. The importance of
rationalism and personal fulfilment in determining reality has taken the cult of the individual
to new heights, nothing is absolute. This worldview has spawned relatively stable
governments, societies and economies, and developed certain extremes of individualism.
Increasingly though, many Westerners are "escaping the rat race" to seek a more 'natural'
existence or embracing holistic [Eastern] New Age philosophies.
Eastern Background and Worldview
The origins of Eastern thinking can be traced to the Hindu concept of Dharma, which
comes from the Sanskrit word dhar, meaning to "support, uphold and nourish." Dharma is
often defined as that which supports life, the sustaining force of the world, the divine
essence of the universe (Chin-Ning, 1995:69-70). In human terms dharma is first proactive:
to understand the appropriate action for any circumstance, then reflexive, where one accepts
life as it comes and acts according to one's duty. The diversity of Asian religions, belief
systems and philosophies stem from the concept of duty. ‘An individual knows what is
expected of them and does it.’ Thus from Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism to
Malay Islam, reality is as the individual finds it.
This view of reality recognises the universe as a holistic entity that functions as a
whole, with every part fitting harmoniously within it.
A Hindu maxim provides an interesting interpretation of this concept: "With what you
get from others you make a living for yourself; what you give to others makes a life for
yourself." The Bhagavad-Gita Hindu philosophical writings expounded this thinking further,
"According to your life your duties have been prescribed for you; follow them and your
desires will be naturally fulfilled." An individual gets in tune with the whole by relating to it,
not through the self, but by being in harmony with the surrounding wholeness.
Therefore an individual's first duty is to their family, clan, race and nation, rather than
to themselves. The effect of this thinking on a person is that an individual’s reality is not
separated from that of the whole.
D
A B
C

This thinking is illustrated with the following diagram:
Lateral thinking of this nature begins with the external universe already in existence.
Rather than trying to understand how it came to be, it is more beneficial to relate to it as it
is. Relating to others has thus become an art form in Eastern societies. How we interpret
feelings may be an appropriate analogy. Westerners attribute emotions to the heart, the
engine room of the body, that active pulsating organ responsible for keeping our whole
system functioning. For Asians, feelings emanate from the belly.
In the Indonesian language, the word hati or "liver", the organ which acts to absorb
and break down waste materials in the blood is an apt descriptive, reacting to the external
elements in such a way as to protect the internal system. This thinking also comes through
in a quote from Sun Tzu's Art of War: "If one is able and strong, then one should disguise
oneself in order to become inept and weak." Rather than simply being concerned with
physical and mental prowess in overcoming obstacles, the Eastern holistic approach takes
into account both projected and internal feelings. Concentration and preparation are what
make the difference.
The ability to achieve victory without direct confrontation epitomises Eastern thinking.
In this thinking, the reality of here and now is far more important than how it came to be.
Nature's law is holistic and absolute. An individual must choose before acting, for once an
action is delivered, absolute consequences will follow. To reach this state of mind requires a
certain amount of passivity rather than activity. The key element of this thinking is that
reality is here. Our task is to learn to relate to reality as harmoniously as possible. Thus the
idea of God is impersonal and pantheistic—God is everything there is.
Malay Muslims often attribute their core existence to the central pillar of their house,
the tiang seri, which represents everything that is important in their lives. From this central
pillar emanates the life force of family, clan, religion and community. That is, everything an
individual needs to exist. This apparent minimisation of self also appears in Classical
Buddhism, where true harmony is gained not from personal fulfilment, but from absorption
into the whole and cessation from a tiresome sense of individual existence.
The main emphasis of Eastern thinking is geared towards relating to life holistically.
Personal fulfilment is measured against the group as a whole, rather than individually. This
worldview has seen the rapid development of nations and economies through education and
cooperative activity, sometimes at the expense of the individual, and tending toward
extremes in wholeness. However, as more Easterners become exposed to Western ideals of
self-determination, their views are changing.

When East meets West
In the East to relate to the whole is to understand the individual. In the West, to understand
the individual is to relate to the whole. These diametrically opposing ways of approaching
reality are the roots from which our cultures and ways of thinking have grown. Unless we
acknowledge these differences, we can never understand each other. The rest of this book
traces the effect these divergent worldviews have on our relationships. What is your
worldview?
Rate your worldview in order of importance from 1 to 6:
• Self?
• Community?
• Job?
• Family?
• Beliefs?
• Values?
Western Eastern

CHAPTER 2
How Worldviews Effect Thinking
Now that we have examined some of the basic differences between Eastern and Western
worldviews, we will move on to see the effect this thinking has in the way we interact with
others.
1. IN INDIVIDUALS
The Western Approach
Development of rational thinking in the West has tended to be limited, exclusive,
focused and results-driven. Thus, to be rational, one centres attention on the brain to the
exclusion of feelings. To be emotive is to feel rather than to think rationally. Advantages of
this rational approach include being able to investigate our environment and to some extent
control it. By applying the scientific approach to almost all levels of interaction we can often
control outcomes. First we develop strategies, and then define goals by excluding any 'false
trails' on the way to an objective. Our significant technical achievements pay homage to this
rational approach.
Westerners like to employ logical thinking, be 'reasonable' and straightforward and
follow through on principles. This includes the practice of discussion and debate, whereby a
group defines particular goals and individuals within the group then proceed to hammer out
their differences. This style of interaction is characterised by disagreement, as each side in a
debate has a slightly different view of how the issue is to be resolved. Often 'rational
thinking' experts in particular fields are called in to give their opinions, thus turning to reason
to overcome an impasse.
The direct approach of the Westerner tends to view long discussions as being
indecisive. We are eager to arrive at a conclusion. Time is also of utmost importance. The
saying "time is money" aptly describes our reluctance to go around in circles. Getting to the
subject at hand and resolving it as quickly as possible is definitive of the Western way.
Western thinking centres on individual intellect and goal-focused strategies designed
to reach a conclusion by the shortest possible route. This is achieved by resolving issues on
a point-by-point basis utilising individual skills and knowledge. Things are placed into a
narrow-as-possible context. Language also comes into the equation, with the precise nature
of English represented by its use throughout much of the developed world as the language
of technology and media. Whereas many Asian languages rely on context to explain logic,
English is fundamentally literal in explanation, with a word to describe almost every activity
or thing.
The Eastern Approach
Taking time to achieve a rational solution seems to define Eastern thinking, with a
subject discussed from almost every conceivable angle. The development of thinking in the
East holistically combines intellect, emotions, seniority and experience. When conclusions
are reached they can appear to the uninitiated as if by accident.

This begins with the group and not the individual, with the whole situation rather
than just the point being discussed. The objective is to find a mutually beneficial solution to
the whole situation, rather than to simply reason out an understanding.
Dealing with others is much more personal and relates to all those present at the
discussion, with considerations such as family ties, religion, seniority and status all factored
into the equation. Our focus is on relationships and what effect a decision will have on
them. Going around a problem helps participants get a feel for the discussion, with all
contributing to the outcome. Respected senior members of the group then apply their
intuition and ability to understand the group's feelings to decide on a mutually agreeable
solution.
Intuition is a highly prized commodity in the East. It is the ability to "feel" the right
course of action using all our senses. Thus the English saying, "A women's intuition is
always right" may not be so far off the mark, since in Asia it is regarded as both a male and
female virtue to be admired. This way of thinking can be seen from the Indonesian word
rasa, which means to feel, taste or think. Rasa in its various forms describes the different
but related senses.
Eastern thinking focuses on the whole rather than the separate. Thus, to sacrifice the
individual for the group is natural in Asian culture. Leaders who use their intuition and drive
to determine the fate of others are admired, provided they can continue to represent the
group's interests. Things are placed in the widest possible context, with achievements being
judged by their continuation rather than their realisation.
Accepting one's fate or lot in life and carrying it out to the best of one's ability
epitomises Asian thinking. Those who are superior in rank or status are to be respected and
obeyed. Decisions determined by group consent are to be received gratefully by the
individual. The widespread use of the passive structure in many Asian languages symbolises
a different emphasis to the more active approach of Western tongues.
When we review these different ways of thinking, we realise that rather than being
contradictory, they are in fact complimentary. Without clear logical thought and careful
exclusion of extraneous factors good science and technological development is difficult. The
East has embraced logical, brain-centred reasoning in its push to gain the technical skills
needed for scientific advancement. Western thinking is also changing as Eastern
explanations of life, health and human relations seem to be better served by this holistic
approach than by rational science. These two different approaches to thinking are
characterised by the following diagram:
Narrow Context Holistic Context

2. IN EDUCATION
Western Learning: Think for yourself
While we may not always consciously know why we think in a certain way, we seldom
unconsciously act. The most obvious outworking of differences in thinking is through our
actions. In the context of worldview and culture, thinking begins at the stage an individual
learns to distinguish categories of imagination and thus begins to develop a reality principle.
This learned reality is primarily cultural. Beginning with our worldview, thinking and learning
become more defined by our cultural environment, and therefore influences our actions.
Western education is active, teaching us to think for ourselves, to find out all that we
can and apply this knowledge in practice. In one sense the learner is the centre of the
equation, learning to research and apply principles to different life circumstances. This
creative method focuses on learning how to think inventively. The teacher acts as a guide,
leading learners to discover, rather than telling them what they ought to know.
This educational process emphasises individual thinking and personal expression of
opinions. Putting forward points of view, asking questions, seeking answers and debating
them is all part of the Western educational method. A high value is put on an individual's
ability to defend their viewpoint rationally, using researched principles to verify their findings
and to answer their critics.
Increasingly in the West the emphasis on education is for a more practical approach
determined by skills rather than general knowledge. Some of the results of this vocational
learning and emphasis on personal discovery can be found in the poor literacy and reading
levels of many Westerners, prompting a return to some traditional rote learning methods.
In general however the scientific method remains prominent in the West, with most
educational books written in the logical and precise lexicon of English. The only real change
in Western educational thought is that it is more inclusive and that holistic learning continues
throughout education, as focusing on more exclusive skills may limit an individual's
opportunities in a rapidly changing world.
Eastern Learning: Learn from others
The holistic approach of Eastern education is more passive, teaching us to learn,
know and understand what we are taught. In this equation teachers are at the centre,
representing the knowledge students must learn to be part of their society. Teachers are
highly respected and senior members of society. The Sanskrit word guru, meaning revered,
is often used in the West to denote prominent leaders who excel in particular fields, whereas
in the Malay language "guru" means teacher.
Because teachers hold such high status in Eastern society, learners rarely question
them and the educational process emphasises the ability of the learner to reproduce
information given. Rote learning is the primary educational method and students develop
strong skills in pure memory work. To thoroughly know what you have been taught is the
key. The emphasis of education in the East is to have knowledge. To be educated is
esteemed in itself, for an educated individual understands their environment and society. A
weakness of this approach is its lack of application, thus in vocational and research contexts,
where knowledge must be applied practically, learners have often learned the principle but
are unable to apply it in different situations.
With many more Asian students studying in the West and the rapid industrialisation
of the East, traditional rote learning techniques, especially in the vocational skills area are
under question, as the ability to practically apply skills in a variety of contexts becomes
increasingly important. Learning to apply does have a long history in Asia.

However, these skills were often presented informally over long periods of time,
being handed down from generation to generation. Formalising and integrating these skills
into the educational system has been more difficult. Because education is so highly regarded
as a means of obtaining status and respect, the more practical aspects of learning are often
less emphasised. It is unlikely that highly educated individuals will be expected to prove
themselves on the shop floor, as they have already done so with their academic
qualifications. This means that there is often a shortfall of practical skills, because manual
labour is considered above those with status. These views are changing, albeit slowly.
The benefits of general knowledge and the ability to remember are still regarded as
the most important educational benchmarks in the East. For those who have the means,
higher learning is in itself an end, for with it come respect, status and rank—values Asians
regard as being at the core of holistic living. Thus even in this era of rapid change, the value
of knowledge and education in itself remains offset by the need to apply theory to practice in
wider and more diverse contexts of learning.
As the world is brought closer together through global trade, the differences in the
way we think, learn and process information come to the fore. Understanding these
differences will help us to better manage the cross-cultural exchange of information.
Interestingly enough, the more we work together, this mix-and-match of Eastern and
Western learning methods will actually improve educational standards. Yet because learning
is primarily socio-cultural, it is vitally important to understand each other's backgrounds
before attempting to share information. Thus for anyone wishing to work with other
cultures, understanding how each other thinks should come before anything else.
Three key areas of learning that are strongly influenced by worldviews are content,
process and context. Knowing the right mix of resources for each of these three areas is
vital to providing an effective transfer of knowledge to a new learning environment. The
diagram below provides an example of Eastern and Western learning cultures:
EASTERN LEARNING CULTURE WESTERN
1. Emphasis on retaining and
using general knowledge Content
1. Emphasis on analytical skills
to problem solve
2. Based on observation,
imitation and participation
Process
2. Based on research, self
thought and verification
3. Teacher-centred seniority
and cooperative approach Context
3. Learner-centred, individual
and critical approach
Because learning is so vital to most activities, knowing what information to present
[content], how to present it [process] and the social environment of the learner [context] is
a priority. In more practical terms it means being sensitive to the learner and their cultural
values.
This factor can be illustrated by the strong motivation to learn amongst most
Easterners. There is no need to motivate us to learn, only to practically apply it. On the
other hand motivating Western learners is the key. Getting us to apply it is relatively easy.
These principles become even more important where teachers and learners hail from
different cultural backgrounds.

Some of my students have complained that their Japanese lecturers do not explain to
them how to learn the language. "You just do as I tell you and you will learn," does not sit
well with those trained to reason through a problem. However it cuts both ways.
A colleague of mine, Mr Richard Coggins, with much training experience in Indonesia,
laments that while Asian learners are able to reproduce information faithfully, they have
great difficulty in applying it practically. After a few sessions together looking at the way
Indonesians learn, he was able to report much better results on the next trip because he
spent more time concentrating on practically applying knowledge.
3. IN COMMUNICATION
Western Approach: Seek an outcome
As a direct result of the way we think and learn, communicating in the West focuses
on achieving an outcome. Communication involves interaction with others and is the
outworking of our internal thinking. Discussions in the West usually begin with individuals
putting forward their ideas about a specific topic. No particular idea is considered superior to
another and each participant is prepared to argue the case for their idea. An example might
be the practice of 'brainstorming', where ideas are tossed around, argued, discounted or
accepted.
The key aspect of Western communication is to solve the problem at hand, then
move on to the next point of discussion. To keep discussions 'rational', there are certain 'no
go' zones such as politics, religion and race. "Putting your cards on the table" and "not
beating around the bush" are all examples of how we communicate in the West. While there
are certainly exceptions to this rule, such as in personal relationships, this is definitive of the
Western communication method.
Conversation, the most personal of communication methods considers the individuals
involved as equals, even if their knowledge and learning is not. While this situation may be
different at a private or personal level, where equality can in reality be only a cliché, it
remains a Western ideal. Furthermore, speaking together at a professional level is usually
formal, matter of fact and to-the-point, since it should not relate to the personal view of the
individual, but rather their particular knowledge of the subject at hand. Discussion of
personal views is rarely entered into, as this may discriminate against an individual and is
unprofessional, besides MY private life is not anyone's but my business.
Written communication in the West is even more formal than in conversation, being
concise and factual with an emphasis on form. Texts are organised clearly so as to ensure
that the message is in no way ambiguous. Business letters are to the point, seeking to lay
out the technical or legal matters to be discussed in 'plain English'. There is no wasting of
words and ideas are put forward as proposals on which to argue for particular results. While
relationships are important, it is the content of the material that is the key to effective
communication.
Eastern Approach: Seek a consensus
To communicate effectively in the East we need to understand the factors influencing
our communication—all those mitigating factors leading to a consensus. Communication
requires interaction with others to arrive at a mutually agreed solution. Discussions in the
East begin with the most senior partners defining the context of discussions, often putting
forward their views of how they see the situation. This allows individuals to discuss issues
within certain relational guidelines, knowing full well that their views should represent their
status in the group.

Being polite and deferring to superiors is part of the process and eventual consensus
is reached by leaders interpreting the mood and tone of the group in a decision which takes
into account group interests.
One of the most important aspects of discussions in the East is that the harmony of
the group be maintained. Thus religion, politics, family, seniority and status all influence the
final outcome. Personal relationships and alliances within the group are vital to ensuring an
individual's wishes are represented. "When benefits are mutual, cooperation will follow" by
"performing the sacrifice of doing our duty" are Eastern examples of communication which
apply both personally and professionally.
In conversation 'face' features highly in the exchange, as how we are perceived by
others and consequently treated, is tremendously important. The concept of face in the East
is all about our place in the whole and our personal dignity. Thus it is considered extremely
rude and insensitive to carry on a formal conversation without first determining each other's
status at an informal level, since in the East people are defined by their holistic role in
society. In the East my private life is OUR business.
Written communication in the East is based on the oral tradition, thus people write
how they speak and focus on context. This genre concentrates on the development and
progression of a relationship and its surrounding opportunities and constraints (Mead,
1990:84-87). Correspondence is organised into a strongly interpersonal and cooperative
approach where technical and legal matters may be alluded to, but not clearly stated. It is
only after careful reading that a picture emerges from the background relationship on which
it is based.
When these two very different ways of communicating meet there is often a clash of
wills, as both sides feel uncomfortable with the other's way of doing things. In joint
discussion Eastern and Western expectations are very different, and when certain unspoken
protocols on either side are not observed, misunderstandings occur. When the Westerner is
first introduced to the group the ensuing silence appears to be a prompt to put forward an
idea. Uncomfortable with silence and hearing murmurs of affirmation the Westerner
continues expounding an idea, surprised at the easy acceptance of his or her view. The
meeting proceeds with the Westerner's motion carried with the apparent acceptance of the
group.
The Easterners on the other hand have not necessarily agreed with the Westerner's
viewpoint, they were simply nodding and affirming that they had heard what was said. They
were not satisfied with the Westerner's approach because it failed to take into account
factors outside of the issue itself. There was no time to discuss these factors because
whenever there was silence, the Westerner began to detail the plan further, probably
assuming that they did not understand. Surely the Westerner knows that silence in Asia
usually means possible disagreement, that the group is waiting for a senior to speak or that
the meeting should wind up.
Two myths are perpetuated in the above discussion. One is the myth of the arrogant
Westerner, quick to express ideas and too impolite to wait for others of higher status. The
other is the inscrutable Asian, saying one thing and then going out and doing something
else. While cross-cultural miscommunications will occur, the important thing is to
understand where the other is coming from. This often does not occur because neither side
has built up sufficient trust with the other.

This concept is graphically illustrated in a current project. The Australian side of the
venture has made it clear in writing and verbally their views on the project's progress, with
the ensuing strategies to achieve these proposed outcomes.
Their Indonesian counterparts on the other hand have written asking my assistance
in explaining to the Australians that they want correspondence to be on-going and written in
a more questioning manner, in order to seek the advice of seniors in the venture rather than
to propose strategies. The following illustration helps clarify the cross-cultural
communication process:
EASTERNER WESTERNER
4. IN ORGANISATION
Based on real life experiences and formal and informal learning, values are
communicated via social organisation. How we organise our lives and societies very much
depends on our thinking. While social values are difficult to define, they usually include four
dimensions: (1) Individualism versus Collectivism, (2) Hierarchy versus Egalitarian, (3)
Independence versus Dependence and (4) Masculinity versus Femininity (Hofstede, 1983:8-
10). East and West are a constantly changing mix of the above. Our societies reflect these
value dimensions in everyday life.
Western Values
In the West we begin with the individual and hold on to values which focus on
personal rights and the ideal of giving everyone a 'fair go'. Democracy is based on the "one
vote one value" rule, as we want to have a say in who governs us and how they will do it.
We jealously guard individual rights believing that their suppression will lead to fewer rights
for all. Because we see ourselves as isolated entities, we form like-minded groups to protect
'our rights': pitting pro-lifers against pro-abortionists, blacks against whites, and labour
unions against business…the list goes on.
Ironically, amidst this apparent chaos, we are generally law-abiding citizens, provided
these laws are enforced equally throughout the community. Due to our political system,
which allows for the periodic removal of unpopular political leaders and parties, either by
legislative or electoral processes, the worst excesses of government are able to be curbed. A
relatively free and independent press and judiciary is a further safety valve, enabling
individuals to 'let off steam' without disrupting the society.
According to Hofstede (1983) four Western organisational value dimensions are as
follows:
1. Individualism is looking after one's own interests and that of one's immediate family
(husband, wife, children, etc) and being independent of that in society with which we do
not wish to be associated.
LEVELS of COMMUNICATION
 Know each other's 
beliefs and culture
 Understand each 
other's expectations
 Respect different 
personal reactions
Worldview
Holistic
Cultural Values
Group Expectations
Personal Response
Seek a Consensus
Worldview
Individualistic
Cultural Values
Individual Solution
Individual Response
Seek an Outcome

2. Egalitarianism is the level to which weaker members of society are protected from
inequality within society. Inequality exists in all societies, but is defined by the extent of
its acceptance.
3. Independence is the characteristic which defines individuals as being prepared to act
outside of strict codes of behaviour and belief observed in a particular culture.
4. Masculine cultures tend to emphasise male qualities of assertiveness, ambition and
competition in seeking material success, and respect is for physical strength, size and
speed.
In the above value dimensions we can recognise generalisations, though it is obvious
that we as a society are not that easy to define. The aim of this exercise is to help us to
recognise our own values first. From there we can better analyse the values of others—then
compare them.
Eastern Values
Eastern values begin with the group and what is best for them. This is usually
decided by one who is seen by the group to have an inspired almost spiritual ability to bring
overall harmony to society. Once this is established—in the interim there may be much
bloodshed and chaos—it is the leader's right to determine the fate of the nation. Only in
extreme circumstances will the people rise up to overthrow an ordained leader, as this could
disrupt the harmony they have brought. Special interest groups are formed to discuss issues
and authorised representatives make recommendations for the welfare of society. Those
who are seen to threaten social harmony are removed, detained or neutralised.
Interestingly enough, within this apparently harmonious and tightly controlled society,
we generally accept that laws will be circumvented in some way or another, since laws are
not applied equally across the board. Most individuals accept a strong state as necessary—
even preferable.
The four Eastern organisational value dimensions are summed up below.
1. Collectivism is looking after the interests of one's 'in-group' (immediate and extended
family) and protecting their interests and welfare, but in return expecting their
permanent loyalty.
2. Hierarchical is the level to which weaker members of society accept and regard certain
inequalities according to their status in society, thus accepting these realities as being
unavoidable.
3. Dependence is the characteristic which usually defines individuals as being willing to act
within the strict codes of behaviour and belief observed in a particular culture.
4. Feminine cultures tend to emphasise the more feminine qualities of overlapping social
roles, in which harmony and quality of life in material success are sought and respect is
for inner strength and humility.
Again we can see that these definitions are generalised and cannot be taken at face
value, but like all models of organisations in a particular society, are the starting point for a
more in-depth study of culture.
As more and more Easterners come to study and learn in the West and more
Westerners embrace the New Age teachings and philosophies of the East, a peculiar melding
of cultures can be seen in many of the large metropolitan areas of the world.

Scratch a little below the surface however and we tend to find that many of these
new ideas are just that—ideas. Traditional views in organising society have not changed a
great deal. Studying values all depends on their scale. As Hofstede (1985:13) states,
"Studying cultures is like using a zoom lens": interest in a particular country requires us to
'zoom in' on the differences within the country. If we want to compare countries we can
'zoom out' on a world scale to see the differences between countries.
A technique often used to evaluate differences between countries in order to
compare their organisational values is a scoring and ranking system based on four cultural
dimensions. Although research into cultural views and values can be somewhat subjective, it
is an informative exercise.
Here is an example:
Organisational Values Chart
Individualism
Score Rank
Hierarchy
Score Rank
Independence
Score Rank
Masculinity
Score Rank
Australia 90 49 36 13 51 17 61 35
Indonesia 14 7 78 44 48 12 46 22
Source: G. Hofstede, Cultural Consequences, SAGE Publications 1980, R. Mead, Cross-cultural Management Communication,
John Wiley and Sons 1990 and additional research.
The aim of this research is to gain information about the difference between two
countries' organisational values or to compare these countries against a broader cross-
section of countries. The scoring system is based on a set of numbers, say one to 100, with
either the Western or Eastern values as the denominator. The distance of a cultural
dimension can be measured as "high" or "low" i.e. “near” to or "far" from that value. This
score then becomes the numerator. A ranking system is usually based on certain criteria or
a comparison between differing factors [countries].
There are discrepancies between both source authors (Hofstede, 1980, Mead, 1990).
For example, Mead states the "power distance" (Hierarchy level in my diagram) to be 35
points for Australia and 85 points for Indonesia. Hofstede on the other hand quotes 36 and
78 points respectively. What this research does tell us is that at no point did Australian and
Indonesian value dimensions cross, meaning that we are scored and ranked as two
significantly different cultures with few similarities.
Organisational culture is an important benchmark for gauging and measuring the
value dimensions of a particular people group, society, country or worldview. However, we
know from personal experience that values are relative to them being put into practice. The
ideals of honesty and sticking to one's principles are well known Western values, yet are
often not practised in real life.
In the East the notion of strong family ties and quality of life are similarly regarded as
virtues, however may not always apply to the vast majority of people. Our values define us,
but by our deeds are we known. As Eastern and Western values collide and meld it is
important not to lose the positive values of each in the process. Knowing our own cultural
values helps us to better determine the values of others.

What are your cultural values?
VARIOUS CULTURAL VALUES
Values About Western Eastern
ENVIRONMENT Mastery Harmony
TIME Precise [Future] Flexible [Past]
ASPIRATION Success Contentment
CHANGE Rapid Gradual
EXPLANATION Scientific Natural
INDIVIDUALITY Self-realisation Group identification
What are your cultural values in relation to:
ENVIRONMENT?
TIME?
ASPIRATION?
CHANGE?
EXPLANATION?
INDIVIDUALITY?

CHAPTER 3
The Outworking of Culture
Now that we have a firm basis of what constitutes a worldview and how this thinking
manifests itself in our societies, we are able to move on to the outworking of culture in our
daily lives. Some say that what you see is what you get. To a certain extent this is true.
Yet we all consciously (or unconsciously) wear masks or play roles which culture and society
have set for us—striving in the process to define a certain individuality or harmony for
ourselves.
1. IN RELATIONSHIPS
Western Approach
Developing good relationships based on individual choice and mutual advantage is
the hallmark of Western alliances. Thus our sphere of personal contacts may not be
particularly large, whereas business contacts and those with which we have a professional
relationship are generally considered separate. We don't tend to mix business with pleasure.
Because of our individualistic nature, we draw a strong distinction between private and public
life. As long as I carry out my responsibilities to society through work and taxes I should
have the right to be left alone.
We admire those who show initiative in developing relationships, those who go out
and get what they want. Of equal importance is the principle of being forthright and honest
with constructive criticism. It is considered juvenile to not have the courage to face
someone directly. "If you have a problem, tell me!" is an oft-heard expression. As 'adults'
we consider it wrong to tell others of a perceived slight without the perpetrator's prior
knowledge. This means being 'up-front'. You should say what you mean. In the case of
conflicts, resolving them is considered more important than avoiding them, since there will
always be conflicts. In fact conflicts can be good because they allow us to 'let off steam'.
Relationships form as a natural dynamic, because we as social beings need them to
survive. However, it is the motivation for forming and maintaining relationships that is the
key. When we form relationships in the West we establish them with those we think will be
of direct advantage to us. This choice may be subconscious, but has the aim of securing an
interpersonal relationship with the other person. Relationships are with individuals and
based on that dynamic alone. It is regarded as being manipulative to use friendship with
one person to foster a relationship with another, though most of us have done this at some
point in time.
Gift giving in the West is a common means of expressing appreciation and is usually
open-ended. A simple thanks will do, as a gift affirms the advantage (love, friendship,
assistance) that the other person brings to the relationship. We are also incredibly generous
to those in need, especially in natural disasters, as we sympathise with the individuals caught
up in the calamity. Because of our care for individual rights and values we sympathise with
the 'underdog', not so much for those who do little to better themselves, but for the
'battlers'. We also like relationships to be on as 'equal a footing' as possible—not one sided.
Eastern Approach
In the East relationships form across a much broader spectrum due to the
understanding that an alliance is a mutually beneficial relationship extending beyond those
directly involved.

We have many friends and the line between personal and professional relationships is
virtually non-existent. Relationships are also much less direct, since issues like status and
rank mean that inequality is an accepted fact of life. Often we form friendships with go-
betweens who we know will benefit them and us through the relationship. We both
understand and accept that we are indebted to each other.
Those who excel at relationship networking are admired for their ability to
harmoniously bring people together for the mutual benefit of the group. A key criterion of
successful relationships is achieving the above without conflict or criticism, as that could
jeopardise the relationship and make both parties lose face. Losing face is to be avoided at
all costs.
We avoid criticism like the plague, but if necessary, it will usually be via a third
person, as we rarely are critical to one's face. Easterners are much more honest to a
mutually trusted third party, as they know the criticism will be passed on, but with the right
protocols accorded to the other person. This has saved both of us from a confrontation and
the possibility of one or both of us becoming angry and upset. Conflicts are to be avoided at
all costs. Needing to resolve a conflict means that we have failed to avoid them in the first
place. Harmony is the key to good relationships. Conflicts only serve to disturb the set
boundaries of a friendship.
When we form relationships in the East we do so with those who may be of indirect
but mutual benefit to us. While our relationships are with individuals as well, this is not the
only dynamic, as this person is also part of a group. It is expected that the friendships we
have with individuals will be used by them to attain benefits for us and we accept that they
will use our relationship with them to gain benefits for themselves.
It is good to be indebted to one another and we give gifts to affirm that relationship,
expecting in return a similar gift according to our status in the relationship. If we are
strongly indebted to the other person the gift should be large or vice versa. We are
generous to those within our own relational group but tend to be less generous to those with
which we have no personal contact, as they belong to a different group. Nevertheless
Easterners extend friendship to everyone, since it is not considered just a personal
relationship but part of our way of community life.
These rather distinct ways of forming and maintaining relationships survive quite well
in isolation from the other, but when they coincide or collide, problems can arise. Because
Easterners identify with individuals through groups, expectations are very high that they will
act according to the group's values. This means that our handling of situations defines our
eligibility in the group, i.e. a high or low status. It is not the solving of a problem that
counts. Rather, it is how a problem is handled that is the benchmark. This may be quite
different to how Westerners approach the same situation. Even if we 'ruffle a few feathers',
the main thing is to solve the problem.
The best way to study some of the differences in our maintenance of relationships is
to see their outworking in culture. Here are some examples.
1. Expressing emotions in awkward situations: Pak Migi had a very difficult son who
was a constant source of embarrassment to him. In this particular instance he had
caused Migi to lose face by his actions and as the father he had a responsibility to
reprimand his son and make amends to the offended party. This he did with a personal
apology and material reparation. On explaining the situation to his friend, Bruce, he
highlighted the fact that he had handled all of it without getting upset or angry either
with his son or at the situation. Bruce commented that he was pleased that he had

resolved the situation, but the most important thing to Migi was that he had handled it
without [apparently] getting angry or upset.
2. Resolving conflicts in the best possible way: An individual had been stealing—
again. The company leadership called a meeting to decide on appropriate action;
disciplinary action that ensured the culprit would be forced to confess was decided upon.
The group leader of this person's division was party to the decision. On the following day
the offender would be confronted, her bag searched and the stolen item returned to its
rightful owner. However, the group leader called the girls in her group together and
proceeded to tell them that a certain item was 'lost' and invited any person(s) in the
group who may have it to return it to a particular location. This was done, without the
perpetrator being made accountable, even though most everyone knew who she was.
Understandably the Western leadership were concerned about their authority being
usurped and demanded an explanation. The Indonesian group leader felt her actions
were justified because the situation had been resolved without any major loss of face to
any individual, even though the culprit was spared the humiliation of being made
accountable for her actions. Management had wanted to solve the problem by bringing
the culprit to account and punishing her. The group leader decided that to resolve the
situation by avoiding a direct confrontation and loss of face was a better way to solve it.
Another interesting facet of culture in relationships is its outworking through
interaction with others. Get-togethers are a good medium to study how people interact both
formally and informally, because we tend to follow certain (often unwritten) protocols.
1. Entertainment rules: Budi has been invited out to dinner. On arrival he notices one
dinner guest arriving with a bottle of wine and another with some sweets. When he
introduces himself to the host he apologises for not bringing anything. He is told that it
doesn't matter, and another guest explains that we [Australians] often bring something
for the host. He can bring something next time. Budi is confused, why would you bring
food or drink to someone else's house—aren't they embarrassed by that? (On the other
hand Budi's Western hosts probably think it a little selfish that Budi contributed nothing
to the evening.)
2. Expensive Hospitality: Richard has been invited to supper at his new friends' house.
He knows they're not well off, as he has been to their house before. So on his way he
stops for some biscuits. On arrival he offers the lady of the house the biscuits—she
refuses. He offers it to her husband and he won't take them either. The meal laid out
for him is fit for a king and he knows they have gone way beyond their means. Richard
can't understand why they won't accept even a small contribution to such a lavish meal.
His Indonesian hosts are offended that he didn't feel they could cater for him. They
would sell family possessions or go into debt to ensure their guest was well catered for.
3. Catering Capers: At an important East-West function it soon became obvious that they
were going to run short of [cooked] rice. The speedy solution for the function to run on
time was to restrict the consumption of cooked rice. The Western conference convener
humbly apologised and politely informed guests that they would be restricted to one
plate of rice each. While he felt the best had been made of a bad situation, the Eastern
guests were somewhat offended. It's almost a 'cardinal sin' to run out of rice in Asia.
"Far better to have guests wait while more rice was being cooked," was the comment
from the Asians. The Westerners felt it better that everyone got a share.
These customary examples of hospitality may seem unimportant until we consider
how we feel about certain etiquette observed by us. We don't like it—even if we pretend
that it doesn't matter—when our cultural values are not respected. The way we form and
Resolve co

maintain relationships is coloured indelibly by our cultural values and worldview. On the one
hand Westerners don't like being indebted to anyone (except the bank), as it infringes on
their individualism and independence. Easterners prefer being indebted to each other rather
than a faceless entity like a bank, as it reinforces their group dependence.
A further manifestation of these values is our Western concept of space—we like our
own space to be physical—my own room, house, car. "A man's home is his castle", defines
our view of the world. We need space to 'breath' and often find solace in solitude. In the
East there is little personal space, in fact we tend to feel uncomfortable away from the
group, finding solace with people, since we don't consider physical space to be that
important. Our space is in our minds—there we can think our own thoughts and nobody can
intrude.
Based on the examples given in this section, we can see the influence of cultures and
worldviews on relationships. While all of us as human beings need to be in relationships, the
way we approach their development is different, and the way we deal with the conflicts that
inevitably arise from this interaction is not the same. Some of these differences can be
summarised as follows:
Western Relationships (Individual)
Eastern Relationships (Group)
2. IN BUSINESS
The concept of doing business is a wide field, but in this particular case I am referring
to the interaction between individuals where the objective is to achieve a mutually beneficial
outcome. The primary difference between East and West in relation to business is that in
the West, 'business' is usually equated with work and occupations, whereas in the East, the
same term is understood to be more holistic, relating to life, work and play. Thus, often
times, the context and expectation of what business is and where it should be done can be
quite different.
Western Approach: Regulations and a level playing field
In the West we have a long tradition of business being based on a system of fair play
whereby certain rules govern the way we do business. Like almost all other competitive
activities in the West, business is regarded as a game played on a (mostly) 'level playing
field'. Sporting bodies (Governments), with specific written rules (laws) controls the game
and umpires (lawyers) determine the rules in disputes involving players (businesses). The
key criteria for this system to work are that all concerned understand and obey the rules.
Those that do not are usually dealt with in a uniform manner according to the rules—
irrespective of their position in society. This system has worked relatively well in most
Western countries and goes hand-in-hand with the cherished ideals of individualism and
Individual mutual advantage
Solve problems and conflicts and stick to principles
Support the individual<>Support the group
Resolve conflicts at all costs and negotiate principles
Group benefits through individual relationships

personal effort we regard so highly as fundamental human rights. Where this approach has
failed somewhat is in international business, where rules and regulations are not the same
and standards are not uniform.
Many Western businesspersons feel that if Easterners simply followed the same rules
and regulations that we do, then they would be saved from the often nepotistic and less than
transparent Eastern way of doing business. While there are elements of truth to this view,
attempts to impose monetary and financial controls have often proved ineffective, since
Easterners consider that Westerners are imposing their values on them. Because financial
dominance has and continues to come from the West, it is often assumed that business
practices should as well.
Western Business Practices
The influence of Western culture in organisations is most often seen in business.
Business skills play such a significant role in defining individuals in Western society. Those
most admired are able to carve a niche for themselves in a particular profession, occupation
or sport. The true entrepreneur has vision and an ability to get things done. Because we
are an individualistic society we like to 'play by the rules', as this gives everyone an equal
chance to 'win'.
When it comes to doing business we like to work within firm guidelines and know
exactly where we stand. Anything unclear is to be cleared up and documented in sufficient
detail to ensure both parties understand exactly each other's responsibilities. Being
'professional' when dealing with others is a key Western business skill, where personal
considerations are not supposed to enter into the equation.
This is an ideal practiced religiously in the West and evaluations based on objective
factors are regarded as being the most credible. When dealing with others at the business
level we prefer not to be drawn into discussions about our private lives, as these issues
shouldn't influence the business relationship. Because we tend to compartmentalise things,
we do the same with people, assuming someone's home and work life as being two
completely separate areas. We jealously guard OUR privacy and believe that personal choice
in matters aside from the business at hand is not the other person's business.
Thus while we may not agree with an individual's lifestyle, this becomes an issue only
if it effects their job. We have legislated for political correctness, gender equality and
individual rights. When we disagree we prefer to find a third party arbitrator who is able to
decide right from wrong, win or lose, based on the objective facts contained in contracts and
documents. The 'independent' umpire's decision is what we regard as being the most 'fair'.
We regard any deviation from these practices in business to be detrimental to
business, as it can lead to favouritism and nepotism. We stick to the written word and
expect others to do the same. However we regard verbal communication as being
somewhat less important in business unless it is in the presence of a third person. Business
is now and our interaction with business colleagues should reflect this urgency.
Eastern Approach: Traditional values and hierarchies
Business in the East is much more traditional and based on the reality that we don't
operate on a level playing field. Thus, one of the key business skills any individual can
posses is the ability to develop a strong network of personal business relationships.
Eastern business is more a community structure, where elders (government) are
respected members of society who determine the principles of business (policies) and ensure
that beneficiaries (businesspersons) are rewarded for their efforts. This business

environment is governed more by decree and interpretation of policies than directly
enforcing regulations.
This system works surprisingly well where community leaders practice a high level of
honesty, because people accept that certain benefits are derived from 'being at the top' of a
particular society. Problems arise when leaders are corrupt or nepotistic to the extreme.
This has been the case in Indonesia, where ‘small’ people, who rely on the leaders for
personal rights, are not treated according to recognised cultural values. However, most of
us prefer business to remain an integral part of daily life and that it is governed by the same
traditional principles and values that govern other aspects of our lives.
Eastern Business Practices
In the East business skills revolve around relationships. Thus, an individual is
admired for their ability to do business rather than their specific skill or profession in
business. Special interest groups dominate Eastern society and individuals align themselves
with groups they believe will assist them to succeed in business. Making and maintaining
contacts is the key, since it is only through these relationships that a firm picture of the true
situation is gained. While written guidelines and contracts are important to the actual
undertaking of business, they have little effect on the overall business relationship.
When dealing with others we like to take all factors into account, especially at an
interpersonal level, as this will affect the outcome. We accept that decisions will include
subjective elements such as the closeness of our relationship, and we tend to apply objective
analysis only to 'things', not people. This means that everything about a person is part of
business, and we discuss family, religious and political beliefs as part and parcel of
developing an understanding of the business activity. In fact, we see relationships in work
and play as being fairly homogenous, as we want to be sure the person being 'adopted' will
be compatible with the group. Personal privacy is respected, but our personal choices do
affect the way we live and work—and that affects business practices.
An individual's personal beliefs, race and lifestyle will all affect their acceptance into
the group and sacrificing their individual rights is not an issue where group harmony is
involved. This is the way it should be. While there are regulations that must be observed, it
is our status within the group which often determines how we interpret those rules. When
we disagree, our disputes are dealt with in the group by the group. If they need to be taken
to an arbitrator, far better it be a group elder who makes a decision based on the best
interests of the group. Favouritism and nepotism are regarded as being part of group
dynamics, provided that it does not damage the overall cohesion of the group. We respect
the written word as a concrete record of the developing relationship.
However, verbal communication is the seal of business approval. Business is a long-
term venture between friends, requiring trust and perseverance.
It is at the point of exchange, where we actually start to do business together, that
the outworking of cultural differences becomes most pronounced. The stakes are high, you
want to get the best deal for yourself or gain more benefits for your group.
Because of the risk and uncertainty, we quickly return to the safe ground of OUR
CULTURAL WAY of thinking and doing things. Establishing 'trust' in business is the key to
developing a long term mutually beneficial business relationship.
For Westerners unwilling to approach business development from this angle, it will be
almost impossible to progress business further, unless it is purely a trading arrangement.
First we will look at the expectations of Eastern and Western businesspersons when they

conduct business and compare the different approaches used in developing business
relationships and achieving business outcomes.
Business Principles
WEST EAST
1. Business is often agreed upon prior to forming
a personal relationship. A personal
relationship usually occurs following the
agreement to do business and the relationship
is classed as a 'business relationship'.
1. Personal relationships are usually formed prior
to commencing business. Business usually
follows on from the development of a
'personal relationship' and is regarded as the
basis for business.
2. Business is a key aspect of life, but still a
separate compartment to our personal life.
The fairly strong dividing lines between work
and play mean that 'family' is usually not
directly included in business.
2. Business is a life skill and there is no real
dividing line between the two. Family and
friends are an integral part of business life and
are directly included in decision-making and
business activities.
3. Showing initiative and being decisive are
primary indicators of business acumen and
aggressive promotion of your firm's capabilities
is the key to 'coming across well'. People are
taken at 'face value'.
3. Appearing to be humble, self-effacing and
non-confrontational are key business skills,
with an in-depth knowledge of your opponents
and their business. People are judged by their
status in the firm.
4. Developing business intelligence is the key
issue and finding out the financial status of the
firm, its track record, management system and
proposed business is the best way to assess
risks and opportunities.
4. Developing strong interpersonal intelligence is
vital and finding out who key leaders are in
the organisation, their beliefs, principles and
management style is the best way to assess a
venture's potential.
Business development is based on the principles used to seek business opportunities.
The methods Westerners and Easterners use to develop business can also be very different,
though the aim and eventual outcome is often quite similar.
Here are some issues to consider:
Business Development Methods
WEST EAST
1. The key objective is to 'win' the business and
this means putting forward a competitive,
detailed and accurate tender, by:
1. The key objective is to bring about a 'victory'
for all parties by discussing the issues which
will ensure mutual cooperation, by:
(a) Preparing proposal letters and directly
contacting clients based on the potential
business and defining how the job will be done.
(b) Negotiating directly or indirectly with clients on
(a) Preparing personal letters and direct personal
contact by using the relationship to seek
consensus on how work and business is shared.
(b) Meeting directly with clients to discuss the

issues proposed and seeking to establish an
agreement.
(c) Basing an agreement on a contractual
arrangement which details how the job will be
done and who is responsible for what.
(d) Writing contracts based on agreements and
negotiations and ensuring all elements of the
project are considered within the contract.
(e) Beginning work based on a contractual
agreement with terms and conditions for each
activity.
(f) Ensuring issues are dealt with based on
contracts and the law.
nature and scope of the proposed business
relationship.
(c) Using an agreement to develop a memorandum
of understanding stating the responsibilities and
relationship of the parties.
(d) Commencing activities based on broad
guidelines with specific contracts for activities
directly relating to a particular project.
(e) Beginning work based on broad guidelines and
negotiating terms and conditions as a project
unfolds.
(f) Ensuring issues are dealt with internally via
personal relationships.
Critical points
There are certain critical points of contention when attempting to develop business
opportunities that need to be factored into the equation. Primarily these points will be where
there are significant differences in the way we do things. The balance will not always be
with the one who has the power, but primarily with the one who wants the business most.
Cross-culturally this may be quite difficult to assess and you will need to base your
assumptions on the other parties' expectations. Here are some situations:
1. Negotiations - are usually the starting point of a business or personal exchange and
often determine the relationship thereafter. Western businesspersons see these
meetings as an opportunity to put forward their proposed model for the venture, a fairly
cut-and-dried program that forms the basis for discussions. Westerners assume that the
job at hand will define the relationship. They are often surprised that the Easterners
appear to have no formal proposal on the table and instead wish to discuss issues
outside the 'scope' of the job. Easterners define the job at hand by the relationships
being developed. Westerners need to ask more questions to get a feel for the situation.
Easterners need to be more willing to put forward their point of view. Neither side will
understand the other unless they have a close personal rapport.
2. Status - is the basis for strong business relationships and is vital to the decision-making
process. Thus the person chosen to represent the organisation should be as senior as
possible and represent the overall interests of the organisation. In the East an
individual's business skills and bargaining power is initially the key to respect rather than
technical or professional capacity. In the West we tend to regard personal ability and
proven technical skills as being superior. Sending the 'right person for the job' is a
common business practice in the West. In the East sending the person with the 'right
status for the relationship' is the general rule of thumb. Easterners prefer ascribed
status, where a person is appointed to a position because of their influence in a group.
In the West we favour achieved status, where one's position is determined by their
personal effort. It is important to respect people both for their position and personal
abilities.
3. Agreements - are usually in the form of contracts or memorandums of understanding
between groups that have agreed to work together. In the West it is generally regarded
that an agreement has been reached once the job at hand has been discussed and
contracts have been signed. Contracts should cover all aspects of the project to ensure
there are no 'grey areas'. Until then, nothing is concrete. In the East agreements

usually begin and end with a handshake. Wordy, legalistic contracts are regarded with
suspicion (Townshend, 1995:14). What contracts don't say are part of the business
relationship and are dealt with in due course. Every single contingency cannot be met
and is dealt with as it comes. The over-emphasis of the written word in Western
business concerns those who believe that it diminishes the strength of personal
relationships. The under-emphasis of the written word in Eastern business causes
uncertainty in those who are not comfortable with relying on personal relationships in
business matters.
4. Time - is relative to our expectations of it, and in the West we expect individuals to be
organised and punctual. In the East time is more cyclical and subject to outside forces
beyond individual control. Where Westerners seek to manipulate time, Easterners seek
to work within its constraints. Life generally appears less hurried in the East, with
leaders, because of their status, excused from being punctual. In the West life appears
more hurried, because work is activity and leaders should be the most active of all.
Westerners are expected to be punctual and Easterners are expected to be less pedantic
about time.
5. Transfer - is the process and delivery of on-going business where ideas, technology and
skills are applied to new business environments. Traditionally, the West has been
regarded as the provider of technical skills, while the East has regarded its way of
managing human relationships as being superior. Because both areas are the keys to
achieving measurable business outcomes and benefits, it is vitally important that each
side is comfortable with the role of the other. Whether it be in the East or West,
understanding each other enough to transfer knowledge comes down to strong personal
relationships and a well managed process—our complementary strengths.
6. Conflicts - inevitably arise and are the most sensitive of all areas to deal with, as they
impact most strongly on our cultural values. Because of the importance of harmony and
personal relationships to Easterners, interpersonal skills in managing and resolving
conflicts are regarded as being definitive of a good manager. Personal skills and
knowledge without the ability to perceive and defuse conflicts are not highly regarded by
Easterners. Western managers are more often judged on performance, sometimes to
the detriment of their ability to resolve conflicts, as they prefer to solve them when they
become a problem. This usually involves confronting the problem head-on, and
personally dealing with the individuals involved. These very different ways of dealing
with conflict makes it a most sensitive area for cross-cultural managers, as decisions
which are seen to cut across cultural boundaries can spell the untimely end of a business
venture.
To succeed in business where there is a significant cross-cultural element, we need to
understand what motivates us to do what we do and why others react in certain ways. Of
equal importance is the recognition of our own cultural values and those of others. Are we
willing to live and work in an environment which is significantly different to our own? Do the
risks involved outweigh the benefits? Only you can answer that, but it helps to know the
cultural dynamics that influence the ‘other’ person. In the next section we will be
endeavouring to look at Eastern and Western outworkings of culture in management. The
five key characteristics of a competent cross-cultural manager, according to Fish and Wood
(1996:40), is their ability to:
1. Build strategic networks and form long term business alliances
2. Develop strong interpersonal skills apart from technical competence

3. Know and be comfortable with their role in a new market and culture
4. Understand the new business culture, language and work environment
5. Competently transfer skills and technology in-market and manage them
3. IN MANAGEMENT
Western Approach
Management—the successful handling, control and direction of an organisation—is a
very Western concept, implying strategies, processes, objectives and outcomes. We aspire
to be good managers of our households, businesses and lives. For the purpose of this
exercise I have confined management to its outworking in business. Management is
fundamentally a cultural process of finding ways to reach objectives within an existing socio-
cultural system (Hofstede, 1983:7). Eastern and Western business and management
practices make up the sum total of the issues we have studied in the previous sections of
this book.
Personal initiative and enterprise form the basis of Western management, with the
successful business tycoon, professional or sportsperson admired for their ability to succeed
and make it. It is said that anything is forgiven in our culture except failure and this is very
much the case with management. The pressure to successfully complete or progress a
program to its realisation is at the core of Western business. If you don't succeed, then
someone is always waiting to take your place. This highly competitive environment leads to
a strong desire to "get on with things" and only talk about what is relevant to the job at
hand.
We are prepared to negotiate, but only to gauge where we stand. Clear definitions,
written contracts and signed agreements are what make us feel comfortable. It must be in
writing. Planning ahead and goal setting can then follow, based on a written proposal.
Logical thinking makes us look at cause and effect—how to bring about the cause that will
lead to the result we want. This reliance on a system to achieve outcomes assumes that
most spheres of business (and life) can be controlled by a similar process. It also leads to an
innate confidence in our ability to solve problems—even if we expend all our current
resources, science will come up with new ones to exploit.
In the West, management is active, determined primarily by the business relationship
between employer and employee, and is based on mutual advantage. Either party can
terminate the relationship if it can be exchanged for a more beneficial deal elsewhere. The
classic rule of supply and demand is also strongly adhered to in Western management. As
such, lifetime employment in most organisations in the West has become a thing of the past.
Being adaptable and showing initiative is the key.
Therefore, we tend to view equality as being based on merit. If you are a high
achiever and make a lot of money for the company, or if you are able to manage people well
and motivate them as individuals in a group to work together and be productive, you are a
successful manager and will be accorded status based on that merit.
While the concept of merit is not always practiced in the West, it is a principle we
strongly adhere to, believing that individuals should have the right to equal opportunities.
Thus a strongly competitive vein runs through most business activities, especially
management, as our individual expertise, skills and knowledge determine seniority. "To be
judged on our personal merits", is an important philosophy, even though ‘who you know and
not what you know’ often still determines the final outcome.

Eastern Approach
In the East management is essentially about relationships between people—their
successful combination makes for good business. We aspire to have good relationships with
each other, because we know that these ties are more important than just being good at
doing our job. Group initiatives and cohesion are the hallmarks of Eastern management,
while strong leaders able to represent their group's interests are most admired. The ability
to manage group interests lies at the core of Eastern business practices and filial duty forms
the basis of these relationships.
Family ties, which may be direct, tribal, religious or based on an agreed status
between an individual and a group all form the basis for this type of business culture. These
relationships are vital if you want to get ahead and patronage extends to all areas of
management. What it means is that we don't necessarily judge people on their individual
skills and knowledge, but on their status within the group. We often use terms of respect for
people such as 'father' or 'mother', ‘brother’ or ‘sister’, when in fact, they are not blood
relations. This parent-child relationship defines Eastern management practices, and duty to
each other and the group rates above personal merit.
Interpersonal trust is such an integral aspect of management, that we place human
relationships at the pinnacle of the organisation, far above systems and processes, preferring
in many instances to modify a process or system for a person, in order to not jeopardise
good work relations. A good manager is one who is able to maintain harmonious
relationships internally and develop good business networks externally. This may not
necessarily mean being the highest achiever in financial terms, or the most technically
qualified, but rather the most respected representative of the firm—one who knows how to
'do business' in the widest possible sense.
Competition is far less marked or obvious in the East and this means that knowing
how the organisation works is far more important in many cases than actually being
productive. This does not mean that being productive is not regarded as being important or
that there isn't much competition in business, but how good your personal relationship is
with key decision-makers will often determine how far you can go in an organisation.
Ultimately, management in the East is about developing trust with all those who matter to
the organisation.
This means that external contacts and friendships are as vital to managing a business
as internal ones, since these political, social and cultural factors often determine the long
term success or failure of a venture. Developing mutual trust by fostering close relationships
with patrons of senior status and rank within and without our organisation, and through
them enhancing our own status, rank and 'face', are key characteristics of Eastern
management. To be respected and trusted by our peers and seniors in fulfilling our duties is
the underlying aim of this management philosophy.
As East and West is brought closer together by global trade, management techniques
become extremely important. We are interacting with each other more and more, yet in
many ways do not understand the fundamentals of that exchange. As one of my business
colleagues said to me recently, "We may speak the same language, but we are saying very
different things." In Eastern cultures people think in terms of 'we' (our family, our
organisation) and 'they' (others). In business, relatives and friends are given preferable
treatment to strangers and this is the norm. It is expected. This sort of management
culture is termed 'particularist'.

An individualist culture on the other hand looks at 'me' and 'you', with the norm being
that everyone should be treated equally (even though in practice this is not always the case).
This sort of management culture is termed 'universalist'. These two distinct management
cultures influence all manner of business. Outlined below is a summary of the key
differences:
Management Principles
WESTERN EASTERN
1. Relationship based on equality, merit
and individual ability
1. Relationship based on mutual benefit,
duty and group dynamics
2. Personal and professional contacts are
put in different categories
2. Contacts are regarded as being friends
once accepted in group
3. Be firm, stick to principles and deal
with problems immediately
3. Save 'face', seek harmony and avoid
conflicts at all costs
4. Opinions determined by debate,
individual thinking and input
4. Opinions predetermined by leaders
representing individuals in groups
5. Individual skills and knowledge define
status with personal rewards
5. Status and patronage where benefits
are shared with group
As more and more Easterners and Westerners work together, the negatives and
positives of each other's management approach comes to the fore. In the West there is a
tendency to place systems and processes before people, and apply rules and regulations
without fear or favour. Easterners on the other hand, often mould systems and processes to
suit certain individuals and view rules and regulations in a similar light. Neither is 'right' or
'wrong', for both have inherent weaknesses. The key is to know how these issues effect
management and use them to your advantage.
4. IN POLITICS
This section attempts to avoid political models and ideologies and instead
concentrates on politics as they are in East and West. We will mainly be looking at peoples'
attitudes and how and why certain political systems seem to suit particular worldviews. The
contention will be that the outworking of politics is primarily socio-cultural, since ideologies
and philosophies stem from similar roots.
Western Approach
Individual belief and persuasion characterises Western politics, with the freedom of
the individual to vote for whomever they believe best represents their view. Western politics
are by-and-large about debate under a tight constitutional rule of law. This means that
decision-making is based on constitutional guidelines. Where agreement cannot be reached,
law-making bodies, such as the Supreme Court, decide the constitutionality of a decision.
Some friction exists between these bodies and this is regarded as an appropriate system of
checks and balances. Government is viewed as directly representing the people and public
servants and the bureaucracy as administrators of government policy, are servants of the

people. While there is much cynicism in the West about this relationship, public servants and
government members are usually held accountable for their actions and receive no
extraordinary privileges from the judicial system.
In the West, the media is heralded as the champion of the people, bringing wayward
politicians and bureaucrats to account through investigative journalism. Journalists, like all
of us, hold to certain views and beliefs and media owners often seek government patronage
to gain more influence, so like all 'watchdog' organisations, have their own agendas.
The key issue dictating the practice of Western politics is the freedom of the
individual to say almost anything they want to—whether positive or negative—and get away
with it. Attempts by governments to impose regulations on freedom of speech via political
correctness campaigns have mainly been ineffective. We believe that freedom of speech
helps guarantee other individual rights.
While inequality exists, we are provided avenues and opportunities to pursue justice
via legal aid, lawyers, government representatives and advocacy groups. The aim of
government in the West is that it be for the people and by the people, and even though this
is not always how it works in reality, individual rights, equality and the rule of law are
hallmarks of the Western political system. Even though we would class ourselves as having
more freedom than societies in the East, we are governed by far more rules, regulations and
guidelines that maintain our so-called 'freedom'. However, the tradition of separation
between church and state has continued to be a buffer against the inclusion of class,
religious and racial issues as dominant factors in the political process.
Eastern Approach
Group interests dominate Eastern politics, as do religious, racial, cultural and
historical views. Cohesion defines Eastern politics and functional groups representing people
groups in society often determine the way individuals vote. Decision-making is characterised
by negotiating outcomes that are seen to be the best way forward in a particular situation,
within a broad interpretation of a nation's constitution. The final decision is made by the
leader of the day, with little recourse to the courts or religious bodies. Friction and conflict is
avoided and the system of checks and balances lies in the leader's skill of interpreting what
is best for the group.
We view government as leaders of the people and accept that bureaucrats and
government members have positional privileges that individuals outside of this process do
not have. They are not servants of the people, but rather respected members of the elite,
and gaining favour with them is a good thing. Politics are determined by power, status, rank
and class in society, thus political leaders and their minions are given much leeway in their
actions. Respect, trust and loyalty underpin this system, and when abused, leaders can be
removed, as they are seen to lack 'honour'.
The issue of 'face' and honour influences the practice of politics in the East and the
reporting of it by the media. Freedom of the press is recognised within certain boundaries.
Namely, the good name of senior leaders and officials in society is not to be dishonoured by
investigative journalists, who are after all of inferior status to government leaders. Reporting
can be critical, provided it does not focus on individuals who are highly respected in society.
Avoiding overt criticism of those with status in society is the key factor in Eastern
politics. Negotiating change requires the right timing, forum and people to express our
views. Student demonstrators may force change, but it is the senior representatives in
society who have earned honour and respect that will decide the changes. The maintenance

of harmony underpins Eastern politics. Therefore, individual freedoms which threaten group
cohesion are avoided, since we believe that these freedoms often promote disharmony,
resulting in a loss of freedom for all.
These differing views of freedom in the political process mean that our interpretation
of each other’s political systems is often quite mistaken. On the one hand many Easterners
view Western politics as being crass, churlish and divisive, with all views being acceptable in
the political arena, even if they are not within the national interest.
Westerners often view Eastern politics as being a facade of democracy underpinned
by absolute rulers, corrupt practices and suppression of individual rights—all under the
banner of maintaining national security and harmony.
While there is a certain truth to these mutually shared views (we all think them
sometimes), it is important to remember that democracy, politics and ideologies are all social
phenomena, defining what is common and what is alien to a society (Macridis, 1980:6-7). If
we can accept that worldviews and personal experiences define politics, it will help us to
understand why some societies accept certain political models. This factor does not detract
from the need to guard against the abuse of human rights, for that is a fundamental and
God-given responsibility of us all. Understanding why Easterners and Westerns view rights
from a different angle—the former from a group perspective, the latter from an individual
perspective—will help alleviate misunderstandings and the hubris so often associated with
politics.

CHAPTER 4
Working out Cultural Differences
As we can see from the previous chapters of this book, differences in worldview and
cultural values have a significant effect on the way we live our lives. Now that we have a
better understanding of the outworking of culture in a number of familiar environments we
move on to the key objective of this book—attempting to bridge the cultural divide. In this
chapter we will be looking at some of the most likely areas of cultural contention and seeking
practical solutions to them.
1. IN FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS
The most likely area of contention in any society is the human element, and even in
similar cultures, interpersonal relations are the most difficult to foster and maintain. The
further apart our cultural roots, the more chance for disagreement. For those who have
worked across Eastern and Western cultures, this fact will have been reinforced many times
over.
Western Expression
Due to our emphasis on the individual, personal expression is encouraged, as it
defines who we are. While there are certainly strong social taboos that control anti-social
behaviour, displaying emotions such as anger, sadness and hostility are acceptable in certain
situations—even justifiable. Where our 'rights' have been maligned or suppressed in some
way, displaying the emotions associated with our displeasure are fine. As adults we learn
strong social taboos, such as not crying in public, especially for males, and not appearing too
aggressive, if you are female. By-and-large at the interpersonal level it is considered normal
for us to have strong disagreements. Resolving disagreements requires each of us to have
'our' say. Being firm with each other and not backing down on matters of principle is also
important, as is being honest with our feelings.
(I can remember my Dayak friends saying to me, "Why are your parents fighting?" I
would explain to them that they weren't fighting, just having a disagreement and discussing
it.) This also gets down to the disciplining of children, where parents show strong
displeasure towards children in public and even spank them. We believe that it is far better
to allow personal conflicts to be resolved by confrontation before they get out of hand and
fester into an even worse situation. However there has been a move in the West to absolve
individuals of personal responsibility by blaming their upbringing and attributing this to their
anti-social behaviour.
The high level of stress and heart disease in the West cannot merely be attributed to
diet, but also to the emphasis on individual effort and achievement. In the large urbanised
areas of the West, the cult of individualism has caused many to become socially isolated.
This isolation of the individual from the wider society's values makes us act in
accordance with how we feel, rather than what others expect of us, contributing to the high
number of divorces, family breakdowns and homicides. Yet freedom of expression continues
to provide a forum for overall social stability. There is an increasing realisation in the West
that our high levels of stress and the emphasis on the individual to cope and 'go it alone' has
been unhealthy, both physically and socially.

Bridging Cultural Divides

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