This document reviews literature on factors that influence minority students' sense of belonging, persistence, and academic success in higher education. It finds that sense of belonging - feeling accepted and valued by peers and faculty - is strongly linked to student retention and performance. The literature examines how different minority groups experience belonging. African American and Hispanic students often face barriers like racial stereotypes, lack of faculty validation, and limited social capital. Asian cultures generally promote education, leading to higher persistence rates. Overall, positive relationships with faculty and peers, feeling part of the campus community, and validation of students' cultural identities and experiences are tied to improved outcomes for minority students.

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Minority students’ Institution perception of
successful resources supporting connectedness
leading to graduation
Prepared for:
The Clients Institution
Prepared by:
The Client
Nov. 2020
The purpose of this project is to review past scholarly articles on Minority students’ Institution
perception of successful resources supporting connectedness leading to graduation.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this qualitative research study is to understand the perceived factors that can
influence minority students’ belongingness, persistence and academic success, and how the
availability of successful resources can help these students in their academic journey. Multifaceted
barriers such as earlier educational experiences, disconnection in the learning environment,
inadequate scholarships, low income and work obligations certainly influence these students and
their lack of persistence in completing their degrees and succeeding in them. To gain a deeper
understanding through published literature on minority students’ ability to persist and progress in
the college setting, it is first necessary to understand who the history of these minority students,
the barriers to their persistence, connectedness (belongingness) and academic success.
Belonging (connectedness)—with peers, in the classroom, or on campus—is a critical dimension
of success at college. It may influence the degree of academic adaptation, performance, ambitions
of a student or even whether a student remains in school (Strayhorn, 2018). The sense of belonging
is relational and hence, relationships that have a sense of belonging have a shared quality. Each
individual gains from the group and the group gains from each individual's contributions, in a way.
It is the fundamental phenomenon of "I am we and we are each". Members assume, in ideal
circumstances, that the group is valuable to them and that they are valuable to the group. Take a
student who is a member of a college sorority as an example, she undoubtedly feels special as a
member and the community plays an important role in her life, partially because one of her basic
needs is met which is to belong. On another note, without members who constitute its very essence,
the sorority means nothing. The group meets the individual's belongingness needs, and members

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will be cared for and sponsored in exchange for membership. However the group requires its
members to survive and the members long to be part of the group as it also provides their life with
meaning and intent (Strayhorn, 2018). Therefore, in fact, the sense of belonging is a "feeling that
individuals are important to each other and to the group and a shared belief that the interests of the
individuals are met by their commitment to be together”.
Attrition rates are higher for non-conventional students than for traditional college students, which
could be partially due to the challenge of immersion in the learning atmosphere for non-traditional
students. Persistence and academic achievement rates at 2- and 4-year institutions for college and
university students are positively associated with the level of student participation. According to
the National Student Engagement Survey (NSSE), in addition to the amount of tools universities
use to organize study programs and other events that previous research has shown to cultivate
learning, student engagement is the amount of time and effort committed by students to their
educational pursuits (Goncalves & Trunk, 2014). The NSSE submitted its annual report in 2006,
and while the report had promising results for the general student population, non-traditional
students were less likely to participate in activities such as voluntary work, foreign language study,
peak senior experience, faculty research, and co-curricular activities (Engaged learning, 2006, p.
13). The study also showed that, relative to other students, part-time students who worked were
less likely to communicate with teachers and less interested in constructive and interactive learning
and enriching educational experiences.
2.2 DOCUMENTATION
This research area is very crucial, and scholars have for more than fifty decades been studying to
evaluate how minority students, especially students of color can be empowered and motivated in
a higher institution. This project reviewed more than thirty-seven published articles including

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webpages, journals, books and other sources researched, with majority of these sources (about
68%) published in the last five years. There were however some other sources that were published
before five years ago, but we ensured that virtually all the sources cited and referenced in this
document did not exceed the past ten years. Due to how diverse the topic was, numerous journals
were used, and some of them include: Journal of International Students, Journal of Sociology &
Social Welfare, Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, International Journal of Teacher Leadership
etc. Various key phrases like minority students, sense of belonging, persistence, colored students
were used to search for published articles and internet sources.
2.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Domestic minority students—Students who choose to report themselves as, “American
Indian/Alaskan Native” or “Black or African American” or “Asian” or “Native Hawaiian or Other
Pacific Islander” or “Hispanic/Latino of any race” or “two or more races” or “prefer not to respond.
Minority students, who are primarily enrolled in white, multiracial educational institutions, are
less interested in college experience compared to white students, since they vary from the majority
culturally. This differentiation in culture adversely affects the intention of minority students to
remain in college. In addition, while both minority and non-minority students will suggest that
receiving racial or ethnicity-based disrespect negatively affects the intention to remain in college,
minority students show higher rates of disrespect.
Minority students often report a significant link between academic performance and the intention
to remain in college; the recorded correlation is poor among non-minorities, on the other hand, and
often even negligible. For this way, minority students would often need to see themselves as gifted
and talented in college in order to continue. Minority students can also have low self-esteem and
may find it difficult to cope in college when compared to majority group students. Although there

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was no difference in the relationship between these individual attributes and the intention to stay
in college for minority and non-minority students. For minority students, the social capital held by
students from dominant groups in higher education may be lacking. Social capital refers to any
support networks that students may rely on during their education, which is important for access
to college and success. After applying social capital indicators to gender restrictions, expenses,
benefits, financial opportunities, and skills, Latinos are as likely as whites to enroll in a four-year
college or university.
2.3.1 AFRICAN AMERICAN MINORITY STUDENTS
Creating diverse, equitable, and multicultural learning environments has been a major goal for
higher education institutions for almost a century now, and it is considered as one of the most
prominent issues on campus today. African American male students tend to have the lowest degree
attainment at the community college; however, although complex barriers may influence them
negatively, many of these students have been able to navigate critical barriers to achieve academic
success (Young, 2020). Additional research is needed to identify organizational strategies that have
supported or can support African American male students’ ability to persist to achieve degree
attainment in the community college. Identifying intrinsic and extrinsic support measures for
African American male students in the community college setting can help lead to educational
success, decrease the achievement gap, increasing employability, and support career goals.
In their research, Newman, & Harris, (2015) examined the factors contributing to Black male
students’ sense of belonging with faculty member. They backed their evaluation with data from
fall 2013 admission students of the community college survey of men (CCSM). They discovered
from their analysis that perceived racial-gender stereotypes held by faculty members, faculty
validation, and faculty student engagement are significant predictors of respondents’ perceptions

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of belonging with faculty members. However, without such research, barriers may remain for these
students. Barriers to degree attainment may include prior educational experiences, disconnection
from feeling rejected and as if one does not belong in the learning environment, limited teacher
expectations, and a competing responsibility of employment against school responsibilities
(Young, 2020). These barriers have proven to be influential in African American male students’
ability to persist in college to achieve degree attainment.
2.3.2 HISPANIC MINORITY STUDENTS
The key research subject in higher education has been the departure of college students for the past
four decades and more recently, the completion of degrees. There have however been a paradigm
change of fresh students in year 1, from a simple perspective of sustaining college student
enrollment to a long-run perspective of earning a college degree. Researches have shown a positive
connection for Hispanic students regarding college enrollment and parental participation (Wagner,
2015). Social capital, identified by parental and community networks, had a beneficial impact on
the completion of the Mexican American college degree. A recent analysis of minority college
students used Coleman's concept of social capital as connected to campus institutional agents to
provide resources to facilitate persistence.
2.3.3 ASIAN MINORITY STUDENTS
There are 29 different ethnicities that have come under the category of "Asian" (Sue & Sue, 1990).
However, most of the research utilized for this work limited the studies to basically five ethnicities:
Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Pilipino and Southeast Asian. The category of "Asian" also includes
two more distinctions: gender and U.S.-born Asians and non-U.S.-born Asians. Because of the

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limited depth of existing research, "Asian" in this work will be limited to the above five ethnicities,
both women and men and U.S.-born students, unless otherwise specified.
It is extremely evident that Asian-Americans, when assessed collectively, seem to be doing well.
They reside in affluent communities compared to other racial and ethnic minorities, have high
marriage rates, higher educational attainment levels, and are competitive in the business world (Joo
et al., 2016). The most remarkable achievement of Asian-Americans, and the one most frequently
portrayed in the media, is in educational achievement. Although 36% of whites, 23% of black
people, and 16% of Hispanics have a bachelor's degree or higher, 54% of Asians do, and while
14% of whites have advanced degrees, 21% of Asian-Americans do. The reason is in their culture.
The columnist David Brooks of the New York Times points to a "Chinese mentality towards
education" that seeks to "improve the fundamentals of learning in order to ultimately become a
guru, which is equally a moral and intellectual state." These principles include integrity (a sincere
devotion to the job) as well as discipline, perseverance, loyalty and appreciation for
their instructors.
2.3.4 MINORITY STUDENTS PERCEIVED FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
PERSISTENCE TO GRADUATION
Academic persistence as discussed in previous sections refer to the ability and willingness of
students to remain in school until graduation. Minority students (Black, Hispanic and Asian) often
show varying degree of academic persistence with African Americans with the least ranking and
Asians having the most rating in their ability and willingness to remain in school until graduation.
The reason Asians have the most rating is simply because of their culture (refer to section 2.3.3),
Asian culture promotes education, with other outstanding virtues. Sense of belonging and
availability of resources are the two most critical factors affecting a student’s persistence and

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academic performance. Nevertheless, there are other minor but still essential factors like
opportunity gaps, supportive classroom environment, family obligations etc.
a. ROLE OF SENSE OF BELONGING
Strayhorn (2008), defined sense of belonging as, “sense of belongingness consists of both
cognitive and affective elements. A person evaluates his or her status or function in comparison to
the (cognitive) community, which then results in an (affective reaction, actions, or outcome (Singh,
2018). The sense of belonging then represents the degree to which students feel associated, part of
or stuck with a campus (p. 17). The sense of belonging reflects the interplay between the individual
and the institution, rather than requiring students to be solely responsible for their
academic success through their integration into established institutional frameworks. The detailed
explanation of the sense of belonging by Strayhorn (2012) is also an important organizational
concept to emphasize.
In terms of college, sense of belonging refers to the perceived social support of students on campus,
a feeling of connection, the experience of concern or feeling cared for, embraced, valued,
appreciated, and important to the group e.g. campus community) or others on campus (e.g., faculty,
peers). Indeed it is a cognitive assessment that usually leads students to an affective reaction or
behavior. Strayhorn argued that the sense of identity can be interpreted differently depending on
different circumstances, which can impact educational and developmental performance (e.g.,
excelling academically, motivation, intention to persist). In order to research the dynamic concept
of sense of belonging, scholars have used various frameworks and analytical approaches (Singh,
2018; Strayhorn, 2012). The reason is that complicated theories and meanings have been used by
scholars to describe the sense of belonging.

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The sense of belonging is an idea that has persisted for many years in the fields of learning. In
general terms, a sense of belonging implies a sense of identity or connection with others (Booker,
2016). While precise meanings of the sense of belonging to school vary, most scholars argue that
belonging to school refers to the "sense of being accepted, appreciated, included and supported by
others in the academic classroom environment of a student and of feeling that they are an
integral part of the class's life and activity."
Typically, the sense of belonging to college refers to the entire school group experience of a
student, which includes the atmosphere of the classroom and the experiences that take place within.
In general, students who report higher levels of belonging in their educational setting have better
psychological results than students who indicate a lower sense of belonging, those students with a
good relation to their community on campus also have better results in terms of health.
Two main players arise while exploring the sense of belonging in the classroom environment:
teachers and classmates. The faculty set the tone for interactions with students and respect and
appreciation of the model. Existing research indicates that students with high levels of affiliation
have had positive interactions with faculty who possess a nurturing temperament, use constructive
learning strategies and create safe spaces for speech and debate. As Fredricks et al., (2004) noted,
belonging is an affective form of interaction that includes how students in the learning environment
feel about themselves and others. As the program coordinator, mentor, and advisor, the faculty is
ideally placed to create classroom environments where students feel related to one another as well
as the subject matter. Research indicates a close association between the characteristics of the
teacher and the sense of belonging of the student. Kay et al. (2011) found that the attitudes of
professors regarding group bonding in the classroom were linked directly to student perceptions
of belonging.

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 Students of Color and Sense of Belonging (plus other minority students):
Academics have been engaged in research explicitly focused on Students of Color's sense of
belonging, the findings of which indicate that aggressive campus racial environments are
correlated with less sense of belonging and peer relationships, as well as lower levels of persistence
and degree achievement (Mwangi, 2016). Peer relationships from various racial/ethnic groups
often shape racial environment attitudes and consequently affect the sense of belonging of
students. Positive cross-racial/ethnic experiences also lead to greater tolerance to diversity for both
white students and students of color, as well as increases in critical thinking and academic
participation. Research shows that Students of Color frequently participate in the formation of peer
groups through racial differences. Black students were more likely to communicate across races
than White students in their research on interracial relations in college, and the interracial
relations for Black students was most frequently linked to social activities. Furthermore, Maramba
and Velasquez (2012) found that enhanced learning about one's racial/ethnic group had a
substantial positive effect on the sense of belonging and social relationships of Students of Color
with other racial/ethnic groups.
African American students attending HBCUs versus PWIs show socially and academically
different results that interact with the sense of belonging (Mwangi, 2016). All variables found to
positively influence the experiences of African American students at HBCUs are institutional
culture related to community building, peer participation, and faculty interaction.
Understanding and studying the experiences of domestic minority students is important to the
larger goal of improving equity in higher education in the U.S. Therefore, it has been a focus of
researcher to study the factors influencing domestic minority student’s experiences on a college
campus (Singh, 2018). Academic, interpersonal, and cultural validation are important types of

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validation that many research studies have shown to be positively linked to learning and
development outcomes (e.g., retention, sense of belonging) for minority students (Museus &
Maramba, 2011; Strayhorn, 2008).
 International Students and Sense of Belonging:
A study on International student also focuses on psychosocial factors (psychological well-being,
anxiety, loss of identity) and sociocultural factors related to the adjustment process (cultural norms,
intercultural interaction, communication). Recently, association has only been applied to research
on foreign student adaptation. For example, the quantitative analysis by Glass and Westmont-
Campbell (2014) found that the sense of belonging increased cross-cultural contact between
international and host country students and improved academic performance of international
students (Mwangi, 2016). Furthermore the study discovered that discriminatory interactions had a
negative influence on the membership of these students, while involvement in co-curricular
activities had a beneficial impact on their membership (Glass & Westmont-Campbell, 2014). The
students were from PWIs, however, and just seven percent of the sample were racially classified
as Black.
Numerous researchers claim that it is critical that foreign students connect with native peers and
instructors on a continuous basis to effectively engage with the campus community. Ward et
al., (2001), on the other hand, suggested that it is important for foreign students to have a peer
network of other international students that can provide mutual assistance and understanding and
reduce anxiety (Ward et al., 2001; Mwangi, 2016). Scholars have explored the sense of belonging
between foreign students and Students of Color, emphasizing that factors such as cross-cultural
experiences, faculty involvement, self-identity, and peer groups contribute to the sense of
belonging among both populations.

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There are also few studies investigating the perspectives of black international students at HBCUs,
where these students share racial identification but differ from their African American peers in
race, nationality and nativity.
Survey Questions for Sense of Belongingness:
 I have a strong sense of affiliation with my college/university
 I have been encouraged to develop my strengths and talents at my college/university.
 I feel I am a part of a close and supportive community of colleagues and friends.
 I am both challenged and supported at my college/university
b. OPPORTUNITY GAPS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Multiple research works on opportunity inequalities in higher education seeks to discuss concerns
of prejudice as leading to feelings of isolation, disconnection, and more importantly, as an obstacle
to persistence and graduation for students of color, which can also be extended to other minority
students. There are also myths about inequalities in college graduation rates among students of
color who attribute it to racial inferiority (Banks, & Dohy, 2019). A New York Times Article
(NYT) (2015) called for true experiences on American campuses about racism. One student
described an example of a noose hanging at the student center and the university replied with
emails promising an antiracist (colorblind) institution (NYT, 2015). "Colorblindness" is a type of
implicit racism that ignores cultural differences.
Studies suggest that such occurrences of racism can lead colored students to feel like they do not
belong to higher education institutions, particularly in predominantly white institutions, which can
lead to disconnection, poor performance, and high dropout rates for colored students. In

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comparison to perceptions of racial inferiority, when Grade Point Average (GPA) and SAT scores
are factored, black students drop out at a greater level than their white peers, indicating that the
problem could have more to do with discriminatory ideals that exist in universities than the
students' abilities.
Color students are often subjected by their white professors to instances of microaggression where
a perception may persist that they are intellectually inferior to Whites. Physical, psychological and
mental health concerns can be linked to microaggressions encountered on school campuses that
can undermine the intention of a student graduating from a four-year university, particularly on
predominantly white campuses (Moragne-Patterson & Barnett, 2017).Students of color are most
influenced by racial experiences at their institution with faculty and other members of staff, where
a higher degree of acceptance is expected. Students of color expect their professors and other
members of staff, irrespective of ethnicity, to be more culturally sensitive and welcoming than
them. Instances of implicit bias have repercussions for student performance, as students may
experience a lack of membership, leading to disengagement and dropout rates.
In his study, Dulabaum (2016) used unstructured interviews to examine challenges to the retention
of African American and Hispanic men in predominantly white institutions. Students of color said
they did not always connect to administrators, counselors and professors, one of the individuals
being interviewed revealed feelings of how teachers do not care for the progress of students and
do not provide flexible office hours (Dulabaum, 2016; Banks, & Dohy, 2019). For students with a
wife and maybe children and who are working, flexibility is required. Self-reported by African
American men, they felt stigmatized and marginalized by their professors and felt like they did not
belong and were unable to succeed.

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c. FEELINGS OF FAMILY OBLIGATIONS AND ETHNIC MINORITY STUDENTS’
ADJUSTMENT
Feelings of family obligations and ethnic minority students’ adjustment A study among Latino
students in the United States has shown that students who felt less pressure to contribute to their
families financially indicated higher educational aspirations with respect to high school completion
(Lys 2009, 3838–4008; Makarova, & Birman, 2015). Moreover, Latino students’ engagement in
extensive language brokering in the family context was found to affect their academic outcomes
negatively, e.g. the quality of their homework and school. Finally, one study reported that a high
language-brokering family context increased the likelihood of substance use among Latino
students.
d. SUPPORTIVE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS AND STUDENT BELONGING AS
ANTECEDENTS OF MOTIVATION, ENGAGEMENT, AND ACHIEVEMENT:
Positive experiences and interventions will reinforce persistence through the heightening of
individual intentions and commitments, whereas negative experiences will weaken intentions and
commitments. Intentions can include wanting to earn a degree in a particular field of study, while
commitment is the student’s desire to complete that degree and willingness to spend the time and
energy necessary to obtain it (Seidman, 2005). Therefore the higher the rate of inclusion of the
student into the university's social and academic structures, the higher his or her eventual
dedication to the college and the more favorable the retention rate is.
Student belonging is sometimes listed as a protective factor and is related to both academic and
social support. There has been clear evidence in the literature linking positive classroom
environments to student academic performance. Studies with middle and high school students

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indicate that students were more inspired and felt more related to their school with positive learning
environment perceptions. At the college level, Freeman et al. (2007) discovered that student
perceptions of the organization of their professors, encouragement of student engagement, and
warmth and openness are positively linked to the feelings of belonging of students, although they
noted that more study is needed in this area with university students (Zumbrunn et al., 2014).
Certainly, instructional encouragement from teachers is also conveyed to students through
experiences and educational activities integrated into the classroom. By facilitating positive
relationships among students in the class, teachers often play a significant role in cultivating
support networks. McKinney et al. (2006) observed, for example, in a survey with undergraduates,
that students with teachers who allowed classmates to get to know each other at the start of the
school showed greater feelings of belonging.
Other research, however, suggest that elements of motivation such as self-efficacy and job
importance may be followed by belonging. In a sample of students from middle school. In the only
comparable research, to our knowledge, of college students to date, Freeman et al. (2007) made
similar findings. Their results indicated a positive relationship between the feelings of class
membership of college freshmen and their later academic self-efficacy and achievement goal.
Findings from other studies with both teenagers and college students also show that instructor
support perceptions can in turn, strengthen the beliefs of self-efficacy of students and that teacher
social support expectations of students predict task importance.

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Figure 1. Self-system model of classroom support for motivation (Adapted from Connell and
Wellborn 1991)
e. PERCEPTION OF INSTITUTIONAL RESOURCES SUPPORTING ACADEMIC
EXCELLENCE
Many schools struggle with how to perform better. Logan, Minca and Adar (2012) address that
this is linked to a school's demographics. The article works to promote the recognition of the
ethnicity of children influencing their classroom success and what school they attend. In the United
States, they claim schools are still segregated and it impacts students' ability to learn. The focus is
on the difference between predominantly white and Asian schools, as opposed to schools attended
by blacks, Hispanics and Native Americans (Harris, 2014). It has been found that the average
Hispanic black child attends a public school where almost every other child is below the poverty
line, versus the standard white child attending a public school where most children are above the
poverty line. (Logan, Minca & Adar, 2012, p288). Race is tightly correlated to how well a student
performs in a test scenario, as per a map of test scores in school. The connection between races
and school performance gives sense to the issue of segregated schools.
A number of charts with information on races and test scores are used by Logan, Minca and Adar
(2012). They also look at the number of individuals in poverty-based groups and where they live.
In fact, the researchers refer to several legal proceedings about ethnicity and the issues before and
after them. Several other scholars are often referred to either for their valuable inputs to the topic
or for their relevant research contributions (Harris, 2014). The scholars find that many minorities
attend schools that have "higher levels of student poverty, lower teaching method, larger size and
worse community locations than white and Asian students" (Logan et al., 2012, p.288). This has
resulted in minority students in different income levels and geographic areas with lower average

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academic performance in math and reading. They found that there are differences in both
performance and race between schools. Since this research was limited to public schools, it
excludes the expensive private school component. Such findings draw attention to the need for fair
schools across the nation. A research by the Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service (2013)
created a geographical map detailing ethnicity details from census data in 2010, based on the 2010
US census.
This data maps the real residential landscape of individuals from different backgrounds. In urban
environments, it also reveals ethnic differences. This map shows that the distribution in schools is
connected to the distribution in the city. Public schools that educate students from neighboring
areas are segregated in terms of the student body. The author of this analysis utilizes a set of data
from the United States Census population. This data was then mapped by using dots to show ethnic
clusters around the world. The information is considered to be correct according to census
procedures when gathering information from households in the United States every ten years.
The Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service (2013) found that there are many areas that are
significantly divided. The resulting table offers a visual display of the information that buildings
are more open to the general public and lets others use a graphical display of dots of different
colors to see clusters of races (Harris, 2014). To show the color combination, the colors and smaller
dots also give towns that are more diverse. When communities such as Detroit are looked at more
closely, it is clear that there is a dividing line between people of different races that leads to a
school divide in those neighborhoods.
f. SCHOOL EXPERIENCES AND NEGATIVE INFLUENCES ON MINORITY
STUDENTS

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In his research, Anumba (2015) tried to evaluate the factors that facilitated the academic
persistence/retention among African American males that were undergoing a four-year program.
He assessed two universities in Southern California. His findings were well documented, and
showed the growing issues of college attrition among African American males, it also showed the
experience that they face in college leading to their decision to drop out of school, and how
institutional practices and policies can be a huge determining factor in their decision. Adams
(2014) conducted an interview with Daria Hall, director of K-12 policy development for the
Education Trust, on the impact of educational opportunity of African American students in our
school system. Adams (2014) emphasized that African American students experience educational
opportunity gaps that impact their educational outcomes. Specifically, Adams (2014) noted,
“Across the board, we are providing African-American students less of everything we know
contributes to achievement in schools” (p. 1). Hence, she observed that opportunity gaps lead to
achievement gaps. Among African American students, their negative experiences in the school
system lead to opportunity and achievement gaps. In terms of negative influences, a brief look at
the academic preparation and school experiences of African American students, the impact of
tracking practices in the K-12educational system, and the school discipline experiences of African
American students are examined.
Fergus et al. (2014) and Noguera (2008) posited that minority students, especially African
American students and Latinos, encountered significant negative influences in our society. These
negative influences become exacerbated as these students enter our school system. African
American students, especially males, experience lower expectations, marginalization into non-
challenging or non-college bound tracks, disproportionate suspensions and expulsion rates, and
special education referrals, as they navigate daily through our school system (Noguera, 2008).

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A qualitative research was performed by Moragne-Patterson and Barnett (2017) to evaluate
African American experiences and their perceptions of micro-aggressions based on race and
gender. Results indicated that African American students expressed feelings of alienation, an
inadequate support systems in their institutions, and having to demonstrate intellectual capacity on
predominantly white campuses, to name a few. Many students indicated that they were shocked
by the micro-aggressions of staff in terms of functional support. Banks and Dohy (2019) equally
performed a literature review assessment to highlight some of the barriers and limitations to
academic retention of students of color (Black students), they discovered that there are some
programs in the institution that may exacerbate systemic barriers to academic achievement and
performance for students of color, the authors urged the institutions to locate and address these
programs.
In one case, their instructor accused an African American student of cheating because they scored
high in their test. While being supervised by a graduate assistant, the student had to do the test
again, this time alone in a room. Loneliness is due to little or no relationships with the staff and
students of color, and the impression that they were not as competent as White students. Amid
their previous records of achievement, students of color clarified the disappointment they felt
continuously trying to prove themselves (Moragne-Patterson & Barnett, 2017; Dulabaum, 2016).
Access to and comprehension of financial opportunities are also self-reported challenges for
students of color.
g. EMPOWERING MINORITY STUDENTS
Empowerment, a key value of community psychology, is characterized as a process in which
individuals, organizations, and societies achieve mastery in their lives over issues that concern
them. Empowerment is recognized in community psychology as a concept that is specifically and

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predominantly relevant for minority groups that hold a disadvantaged role in society, as
psychological empowerment is a result of the relationship of a person with his or her environment.
Even though access to college education is feasible, racial/ethnic minority students face distinctive
educational, social and financial challenges in higher education, resulting in less competitive
results compared to other students. Since the experience of university is not limited to the
classroom, these problems can occur in different areas of college student life: school, friends,
biological needs, family, job, engagement. These issues include weak academic preparation and
lower academic opportunities in high school, disproportionate placement in college remedial
courses, higher level of academic difficulty in college, low-income backgrounds, need to work off-
campus, concern about college affordability, and less time for participation and study on campus,
especially compared to the majority population. On 17, 601 and 124 separate sets of racial/ethnic
minority college students, Back, (2014) conducted a survey to use a participatory mixed approach
to identify empowerment for this group, and then build a method to assess it. To highlight the role
of context, both organizational and social, in the conceptualization of psychological empowerment
for racial/ethnic minority students, he established a College Student Empowerment Scale.
2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study is a qualitative analysis that examines the perceived factors that can influence minority
students’ belongingness, persistence and academic success, and how the availability of successful
resources can help these students in their academic journey. Since persistence refers to the ability
and willingness of these students to remain in school until graduation, it will be the focal point of
the theoretical framework, and all the factors elaborated in section 2.3.4 will be used to assess
minority students persistence. The following hypothesis have been established.

21. 21
H1: Sense of Belonging is positively related to Minority students Persistence.
H2: Opportunity gaps in higher education is positively or directly related to Minority students
Persistence.
H3: Family obligations and school adjustments is positively related to Minority students
Persistence.
H4: Supportive classroom environments is positively or directly related to Minority students
Persistence
H5: Institutional resources is positively or directly related to Minority students Persistence
H6: School experience and negative influence is positively or directly related to Minority students
Persistence.

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Figure 2. Research Framework
2.5 CURRENT FINDINGS
Numerous authors tried to classify minority students based on ethnicity, some others classified
them as international students, while some selected few scholars defined minority students with
respect to their gender. This study however classifies international students with respect to their
ethnicity, with students of color, Asians and Hispanic students being the most widely regarded
minority students in the United States. Understanding what minority students face in higher
institutions were broadly explained by (Young, 2020; Newman, & Harris, 2015; Wagner, 2015
and Joo et al., 2016). The authors described minority students of color, Asian and Hispanic
students and highlighted some of the challenges they face, and how difficult it has been to connect
to their peers, or have access to institutional resources that can help them succeed in schools.
Some other authors (Mwangi, 2016; Dulabaum 2016; and Freeman et al. 2007) carefully studied
the topic, and discovered how sense of belonging, opportunity gaps and family obligations were
also some factors that led to minority students unwillingness or inability to continue in school,
hence seek dropping out. I did a thorough research on these authors findings, and discovered that
they were absolutely correct, however, there were many other factors that can as well affect
minority students persistence in college. While sense of belonging might be the most impactful,
availability of successful resources to both minority students and international students can also
grossly affect their institutional persistence. Availability of resources could be in the form of
scholarships, grants, support from fellowships, other financial resources, lecture materials, access
to helpful educational repositories online (e.g academic journals, scribd.com, licensed software
etc.) can positively impact on the academics of minority students and their willingness and ability
to both remain in college, and succeed.

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2.6 CONCLUSION
This literature review chapter of the project highlights all the relevant scholarly research work that
has been conducted on the project topic. The purpose of the review is to understand the perceived
factors that can influence minority students’ belongingness, persistence and academic success, and
how the availability of successful resources can help these students in their academic journey.
Belongingness, Persistence and Academic success/achievement are the three important key words
for this project, these key words are relate. Belongingness is an essential factor that can lead to
persistence, which is the ability and willingness of a student to remain in school until graduation.
Persistence on the other hand is needed for a student to succeed and graduate.
Several factors like opportunity gaps, availability of resources, supportive classroom environment,
family obligations, school experience and influences, sense of belonging etc. are the most common
factors that can lead to academic persistence and success. The next chapter will discuss the method
that will be used to perform the qualitative survey, the proposed institution, and participants and
all the variables and elements in the survey questionnaire
2.7 SUMMARY
The goal of this chapter has been to highlight all the relevant scholarly research work that has been
conducted on the project topic, for the purpose of understanding the perceived factors that can
influence minority students’ belongingness, persistence and academic success, and how the
availability of successful resources can help these students in their academic journey. Six
perceived factors were highlighted, with sense of belonging being the most impactful factor. A
theoretical model was constructed with six hypothesis based on the factors identified, a qualitative
analysis would then need to be conducted by surveying a sample of college students to determine

24. 24
their perception on these highlighted factors. The next chapter would highlight the method that
was employed to make this qualitative analysis.

25. 25
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Young, P. F. (2020). The Perceived Factors That Influenced African American Male Students’
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Strayhorn, T. L. (2018). College students' sense of belonging: A key to educational success for all
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Booker, K. (2016). Connection and commitment: How sense of belonging and classroom
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Mwangi, C. A. G. (2016). Exploring sense of belonging among Black international students at an
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Noguera, P. A. (2008). The trouble with Black boys: ...And other reflections on race, equity, and
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aggressions on historically white campuses: A qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis. Journal of
Sociology & Social Welfare, 44(3), 3-26.
Dulabaum, N. L. (2016). Barriers to academic success: A qualitative study of African American
and Latino male students. League for Innovations, 11(6). Retrieved from
https://www.league.org/innovation-showcase/barriers-academic-success-qualitative-study-
african-american- and-latino-male.
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10.1177/1538192714568807.

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APPENDIX
SURVEY QUESTIONS (QUESTIONNAIRE):
 Demographic Information
The initial questions will provide the researcher with basic information about those participating
in the study.
Please put a tick (√) in the box next to the best answer to these questions below:
Main Questionnaire Items:
(a). Sense of Belongingness:
 Do you have a strong sense of affiliation with your college/university
 Have you been encouraged to develop your strengths and talents at your college/university.
 Do you feel you are a part of a close and supportive community of colleagues and friends.
 Are you both challenged and supported at my college/university
1. Are you? Undergraduate
student
Postgraduate student
None
2. Gender
not to
disclose
3. Age group: Under 15 15-20 21-40 40-60 Over 60
4. Marital
Status
Single Married Other
5. Class of
Minority
Student
African
American
Asian Hispanic Not a
minority
student
Prefer
not to
disclose

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(b). Opportunity gaps in higher education
 What value do minority students bring to your school?
 What impact does the idea of an achievement gap have on the performance of Minority
students in your school?
(c). Family obligations and school adjustments
 Do you have a job while in school?, if you do how does it affect your school work?
 Do you have a sibling, child, parent or any family member who is financially handicapped?
(d). Supportive classroom environments
 Do you feel comfortable and safe in the classroom?
 Does your teacher or classmate help you when you are unsure about how to complete your
work?
 Facilities meet needs, campus appearance is pleasing, and steps are taken to provide a
secure environment
(e). Institutional resources
 Are you provided with the resources you need to be effective in both classroom as well as
during personal studies?
 Are you provided with resources in the form of scholarships, grants, support from
fellowships, other financial resources, lecture materials etc. for your school work?
(f). School experience and negative influence

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 During the time school is in session, about how many hours a week do you usually spend
outside of class on activities related to your academic program such as studying, writing,
reading, lab work, rehearsing etc.?
 Have you become acquainted with students whose interests were different from yours?
 Have you become acquainted with students who you think had no academic goals, and
were merely wasting their times in school?