Lean Principles and Project Mapping Application to Project Processes. Submitted

Olufemi Isaac Akinjiyan. @00333369.
Lean Integrated Design and Production. @00333369.
May 2016. Project Management in Construction.
Lean Principles and Project Mapping Application to
Project Processes.
University of Salford
School of the Built Environment
BSc (Hons) Architectural Design and Technology

Lean Principles and Project Mapping Application to Project Processes.
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List of Figures
Figure 1 5
Figure 2 6
Figure 3a 7
Figure 3b 8
Figure 3c 8
Figure 4 9
Figure 5 13
Figure 6 13
Figure 7 14
Figure 8 15
Figure 9 16
Figure 10 18
Figure 11 18
Figure 12 19
Figure 13 21
Figure 14 23
Table of content
Executive Brief 2
Aim and Objective 2
1.0. Introduction 3
1.1. Project Process Explained. 3
1.2. Process Improvement. 4
2.0. Identified Project Process. 5
3.0. Explanation of the Lean Production Principles. 9
4.0. Developed Target Process. 17

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5.0. Implementing Lean Production Principles. 19
6.0. Plan for Continuous Improvement. 22
7.0. Conclusion. 24
Reference 25
Executive Brief.
The purpose of this report is simply to implement Lean Production Principles (LPP) into an
identified project process selected by the writer. This will involve explaining both the current
process selected and Lean Production Principles. After which improvement to the process will be
suggested and implemented to ascertain if the suggested process is improved or not. Also a clear
plan is derived to ensure continuous improvement to the process.
The report is divided into five parts; the first part is sub-divided into two parts (a) to give a brief
explanation of what project processes are. (b) to determine a process within the writer’s design
field, which will be explained in details and give a clear and concise explanation of the project
context. This is achieved by critically evaluating the chosen process. The second part involves an
explanation of the LPP, its theoretical benefits and discussing how these benefits will impact on
the particular context. Thirdly, developing a target process based on the consideration of
alternative approaches. Achieved by thinking critically about the choices made in developing a
target process. Fourthly, to highlight the challenges within the process and deriving appropriate
measures to deal with the highlighted challenges. This is achieved by directly implementing LPP
to the process for improvement. Lastly, developing a clear and functional plan to ensure
continuous improvement (CI) is achieved in the process afterwards.
Aims and Objectives
The aims and objectives of the report is basically to address the following issues;
To identify and critically identify a chosen project process.
To give detailed explanation of the Lean Production Principles.
To highlight the challenges within the process and deriving appropriately measures to deal with
the highlighted challenges.
To develop a clear and functional plan to ensure continuous improvement is achieved in the
process afterwards.

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1.0. Introduction.
The report is based on choosing a familiar Project Process, a Building Project Design Process is
selected by the writer based on having an Architectural background and a designer in a
multidisciplinary office. Which comprises of structural, mechanical designers and the architects
are the lead discipline. The motive is to investigate the reputation achieved by the office over the
years which is now fading away due to drop in profits. This awareness made the management
team request for a detailed report with effective ideas to improve overall productivity. The writer
is familiar with the current office operations leading to poor performance and observed daily
issues that leads to reduced productivity as;
i. The lack of well-structured brief, changes to design requirements and delayed decisions
by the client.
ii. The inappropriate approach of distributing tasks within the office, where some staffs are
overloaded and others are practically doing nothing.
iii. Not having time to produce creative designs and working in collaboration with other
designers due to time spent on solving design problems and waiting time for approval or
other issues.
iv. Design tasks usually do not start early due to lack of information from other designers
making the architect request for those information and resulting in time wasting.
Otherwise assumptions will be made by architect to start early without all input from
other designers and this leads to wasted time due to wrong input information.
v. No one is responsible for the preparation and implementing design schedules and due
dates for project completion are usually not accurate.
vi. The interference of information between drawings (architectural, structural and
mechanical drawings) on construction sites despite been produced as a team.
vii. The transferring of senior designer’s experience to young designers is in efficient due to
lack of discussion and joint design problem solving.
The highlighted points will be used as reference to develop ideas that would facilitate
improvement and overall increase productivity. LLP will be suggested as a possible way of trying
different approach for project delivery based on the fact that the office has good relationship
with a repeat client.
The next part of the report is to give a brief explanation of what project process is, its usefulness
and improvement quality. After this, a process within the writer’s design field will be identified
and explained clearly and concisely in details.
1.1. Project Process Explained.
Definition: It is important to understand what a process is within a project, Codinhoto and
Koskela (2000), makes it clear that a process is a series of steps taken to produce a product or

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service. On the other hand, Fleming (2016), defines process as a sequence of actions or
procedures performed for a given purpose and simplifies that process is what one do by utilizing
the combination of people, tools and procedure. Codinhoto and Koskela (2000), went further to
explain that a process can be viewed as a value chain. In the sense that each step within the
process should add value to the preceding step. Contributing to the creation of product or
service. Process mapping concept helps to facilitate each step in a project process when
represented in workflow diagrams. This makes it clear to identify possible improvements within
the process, such as eliminating duplicated activities, inspections, multiple reviews, approvals
and movement at work. It includes implementing pull demand system, optimizing flow,
organizing multifunctional teams and structuring task layout.
Uses: The main purpose and uses of process mapping amongst others is to understand what one
is aiming to achieve either to gain a better understanding of the current process and
communicating it effectively to parties involved or to restructure the entire process in other to
remove waste by applying the improvement techniques of the LPP. There are various techniques
in achieving a functional project process mapping, this includes; Activity Process Mapping (used
in a process current state and results into the development of a new process map that will allow
for better understanding of the change. It also facilitates the ease in transition from current to
future processes), Integrated DEFinition (IDEF) Modelling (this technique incorporates a
combination of graphics, narrative symbols and rules designed to capture the processes and
structures of an organisation. According to IDEF (2016), IDEFO is a technique developed to
express activities and actions of systems or an organization. Derived from a graphical language
called Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT). It comprises of a series of diagrams in
hierarchical order that showcase levels of project detail. This reflects how process functions
relate and operate collaboratively), Value Stream Mapping (this approach compiles all activities
and controls required to develop a product or service through the main flow from raw material
to delivery to the customer. Main purpose is to identify and eliminate waste within the process
by removing non value adding steps and Information or Material Flow (this is useful in explaining
communication or transportation routes and the waste inherent in these processes. It allows the
removal of bottlenecks or barriers from interrupting the flow of material and information).
1.2. Process Improvement:
A process is improved by using the Planning, Doing, Checking and Acting model or the Deming
cycle as explained by Codinhoto and Koskela (2000) for continuous improvement. It makes the
cycle of continuous improvement clear by reducing the differences in customer requirement and
process performance. Resulting to delivering and meeting customer’s satisfaction, value and
expectation.

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2.0. Identified Project Process.
Now that a basic understating of what project process involves, the writer identified the
process/processes involved in a Building Project from project inception to completion. Being an
Architect, the processes involved from the time a client approaches an Architect after an idea or
a building need is defined will be processed by the writer. This entails the processes involved
from initial consultation by client through to the briefing, concept formation, designing,
procurement, construction and handover. However, the traditional procurement method will be
the main process to be assessed. In other to have a structured and well defined approach for this
process, the Royal Institute of British Architect (RIBA) Plan of Work will be used as a guide as
shown in figure 1.
It is also important to outline the process by showing the flow of activities from initial
consultation by client to an Architect through to project completion in Figure 2.

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From figure above, the Client consults the Architect once a need to build is required, where the
design brief is discussed. The architect develops a strategic brief based on client requirements
and ensures the client approves the developed strategic brief. Once approved by client the
project continues to progress into the concept formation stage and planning permission is looked
into. A developed and technical design is achieved by the architect in conjunction with other
designers i.e. structural and mechanical engineers. Once design is fully developed tender is sent
out for possible building contractor to tender for the construction of the project. Construction
work commences once a building contractor is selected during the procurement stage, after
construction comes the handing over followed by the use of the building by prospective
occupants.
Figure 2 identifies a broad process flow in the building project, which is very challenging to explain
the flow of activities within each processes. This resulted in processing the flow of activities
within the Procurement stage due to the assumption of the writer that a Traditional Procurement
method is adopted for the continuous repeat building projects the office embarks upon. To
investigate if process improvement can be made by removing waste and non-value adding
elements within the traditional method of procurement. The IDEF Model is used to explain the
process in details showing the context, level 1 and 2 diagrams in figures 3a to 3c respectively.
UML diagram can also be used to further explain the flow of activities within the traditional
procurement method.

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From the figures above there is a sequence in which processes are carried out, they are processed
differently and this leads to time wasting because the stages lack effective communication
amongst participants. To develop these processes further, it is suggested that processes should
be processed concurrently and communication improved in other to eliminate non value adding
elements.
Based on figure 3c, the generic process of traditional procurement method is illustrated in figure
4 highlighting time wasting due to waiting for required information, inspection and approval in
the whole process.
3.0. Explanation of the Lean Production Principles.
According to Liker (2004), Lean can be described as long term philosophy of an organization,
respect for people and learning continuously or improving a process. Whereas, Kagioglou et al.,
2007), explains that the lean philosophy is an approach focused on closing the gap that exists
between designing and production activities while value increased.
Codinhoto and Koskela (2008) emphasizes that Lean production was developed by Toyota the
car manufacturer, Taiichi Ohno (Shingo 1989) their Chief Engineer was responsible for

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implementing it. This resulted to Toyota wanting to utilize scarce resources following World War
II and to improve the quality of products offered to customers. Toyota achieved this by exploiting
the theories of Deming (1982), Juran (1979) and previously established production management
tools to introduce a customer focused method of production that is aimed at reducing waste.
Tools such as Kanban replenishment (Kanban is a Japanese word for card, Toyota used it to
manage the flow of production materials and serves as a pull production system as described by
Liker (2004), the 5S (Sort, Stabilize, Shine, Standardize and Sustain. Liker (2004), explains that
these are sets of activities used to eliminate wastes that leads to defects, injuries and errors.
Whereas, Wikipedia (2016), emphasizes that the 5S involves proper housekeeping by removing
items not required in a process to facilitate easy and fast method of obtaining tools or parts.
Liker (2004), pronounced that Just-In-Time (JIT) is a technique used by companies which allows
them to produce and deliver products with limited lead time, smaller quantities and specific
customer requirement. It also reduces the quantity of inventory companies stock and creates
flexible environment for products manufactured by the companies. These were used to develop
the new method of production. It is important to know that Lean production had set objectives
for the production system, where cars was ‘made to order’ based on specific customers’
requirements by ensuring inventories and intermediate stores are minimal to the overall
production process.
Toyota developed their lean production system by identifying waste (also known as Muda) and
finding ways to eliminate them. The elimination of these waste resulted to the lean production
system. Ohno (1988), identified seven wastes in Fleming (2016) and this inspired Monden (1992),
to identify three categories of operations that exist within any production process to include;
 Value adding: These are activities that transforms data, idea, information and raw
material to meet perceived end objective and customer requirement.
 Essential (or necessary) non-value adding: These are activities that are usually crucial
in an existing process but require a major change to remove the activity within the
system.
 Non-value adding: These are generally wastes, they are activities that does add value
to the process and they occupy space, time and yet take up time, space and exploit
resources.
Ohno (1988) in Fleming (2016), stressed that the first five waste identified refers to the flow of
materials within a given system and the last two deals with men operating the system. The waste
includes the following;
Waste of Overproduction: This deals with the production of products ahead of customer order
by making too much just in case there is production shortage. This approach affects the smooth
flow of goods and services, leads to poor product quality or production and unnecessary storage
and lead time. The chances of defects are increased in over production because defects are not

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detected on time, products are damaged, inventories are increased, barrier to communication,
tying capital down and unusual work pressure are adopted. The aim of implementing lean is to
produce exactly what is required, when required and with perfect quality. This is achieved where
the Kanban system is used to prevent unplanned production by allowing work to progress only
when the next work stage is ready. Bottlenecks, work in progress, manufacturing lead time and
delivery sizes are examples of overproduction.
Waste of correction: This is waste caused due to defects, which cost money, time and results in
damaging reputations in product delivery. Bicheno (1998), explains that the principle of Cost of
Quality is used to prevent and rectify defects and it enables quantifying all activities involved in
prevention and rectifying defects. Examples of waste of correction are lost goods, damage due
to transportation, rework, errors from paperwork etc.
Waste of material movement: This involves the movement of materials or component and
handling (double) operations. These activities result to product damage and affects both quality
and productivity. Lean is implemented in waste of material movement by ensuring the reduction
in transportation and handling, for instance locating a design office relatively close to site office
to facilitate the flow of communication. Travelling distance on site and to site, storing deliveries,
handling materials etc. are all examples of waste of material movement.
Waste of processing: Unnecessary processing of materials leads to waste in the sense that when
inappropriate inputs are processed they lead to poor quality because they are not helpful rather
causes detects. LPP emphasis adopting a capable process that employs the precise training,
method, tools and a clearly stated required standards. Instances of waste in processing includes
but not limited to rework, customer’s requirement not met by product produced, inspection,
quotations etc.
Waste of inventory: This type of waste is acquired when an organisation produce product outside
customer order and stores them in stores for emergency purposes should in case the
organisation runs out of production. problems associated with waste of inventory are products
with defects are not identified easily, increases lead time, takes up space and affects
communication etc. LPP is focused on producing product based on customer pull and meeting
their requirement JIT with perfect quality by reducing inventory. Examples of the waste of
inventory include; over ordering, storage space, early deliveries, shortages caused by damage to
goods stored over time.
Waste of waiting: Waste of waiting comes to play whenever time is used inappropriately,
resulting to delay in activities within a process and it’s an indication of waste. It’s a known fact
that people generally don’t like waiting to be attended to therefore, the waiting time within a
given process should be minimized to the very minimal level zero. LPP stresses that the waiting
time should be spent on other activities such as cleaning, training of staffs, maintain etc. these

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activities helps to improve quality and productivity when adopted. Materials and labour
shortages, breaking down of plants, ineffective planning and coordination are examples of waste
of waiting.
Waste of motion: This occurs when movement that are unnecessary takes place, such as
workmen taking unnecessary positions like bending, stretching or moving in order to view better.
These movements affect the quality and productivity of output or work. In resolving this issue
the application of ergonomics of the work place should be carried out and workers should be
aware of it. Toyota achieved this by encouraging employees to familiarise themselves with
conditions that leads to waste of motion. When stretching to reach goods or materials, searching
for materials or drawings, walking to get materials are all examples of waste of motion.
Other wastes: Codinhoto and Koskela (2000), makes it clear that other researcher suggested the
eight waste or other waste, which include the waste of excessive energy, of pollution, of human
potential, of complexity etc. liker (2004), is of the opinion that the 8th waste are unused
employee’s creativity such as;
wasting ideas, lack of skills improvement and learning opportunities when employees are not
engaged in activities or decision making.
Lean production aims to optimize production system performance against perfection standard
to meet specific customer requirements by adopting the five lean principles explained by
Womack and Jones (2003). The five principles are described as;
1. Value: This is the specification of value by product or service and understanding the
value the customer wants. This is achieved by establishing customer expectation and
requirement, setting targets, controls and examining results. These are done after identifying the
products to produce.
2. Value Stream: This requires identifying and defining the value stream by mapping out and
classifying the value, focusing the beginning and end point on the customer and removing
activities that are non-value adding.
3. Flow: This involves making appropriate information and product flow by eliminating
waste. Generally aiming to develop a one-piece flow that is continuous explained by Rother et al.
(2001), harmonising all activities together, focusing on possible constraints, establishing a rate of
flow and preventing bottlenecks from delaying the progress of activities.
4. Pull: Allowing the customer to order before product is processed for manufacture and
ensuring that supplies are supplied quickly in accurate quality when required during production
or to customers.
5. Perfection: This entails continuous improvement to reach perfection, achieved by
continuously working to improve performance, product quality and productivity. Also by striving
to achieve zero defects, creating a transparent environment and increasing the rate of flow.

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In addition to the five lean principles mentioned earlier, Toyota further developed the Toyota
Production System (TPS) which is diagrammatically represented in figure 5.
Toyota based the TPS on 14 Principles and applied them to their production system, this achieved
what is known today as LPP. Toyota also used a model called the “Toyota way” to facilitate their
overall philosophy, this is explained in figure 6.

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The TPS 14 Principles are highlighted by Fleming (2016) as;
Principle 1: Basing management decisions on a long term philosophy, even at the expense of
short term financial goals.
This involves making customer commitment their focus on long term basses ensuring best quality
products are produced for customers and by not allowing financial gain to overcome customer
commitment. Building mutual trust with the people and ensuring employees maintain their
culture at all times.
Principle 2: Creating continuous process flow to bring problems to the surface.
The concept behind this principle is to implement a continuous one-piece flow to reduce waste
quickly. Implementing this principle brings about the beneﬁts of creating flexibility, freeing up
spaces, improving safety, reducing cost of inventory etc.
Principle 3: Use the "Pull" system to avoid overproduction.
By implementing the pull system to produce only the required material once subsequent
operations signals a need for material. The Kanban system is used and this helps to reduce
overproduction.
Principle 4: Level out the workload (Heijunka).
This involves building according to overall volume of order placed by customer in a given time
and spreading the work load over the same mix or amount carried out daily. By building to order
increases inventory, poor quality and hides problems. The main focus of this principle is to
eliminate Muda (nonvalue added activities), Muri (Overburdening of equipment and people) and
Mura (Unevenness) by striking a balance within them as illustrated in figure 7 making it clear that
the focus should be on both flow and evenness.

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Principle 5: Build a culture of stopping to fix problems, aiming to get quality right the first time.
This approach gives power and authority to any worker in a process to stop the process by
signalling whenever quality issue is observed during production using the Andon system.
Principle 6: Standardize Tasks are the foundation for continuous improvement and employee
empowerment.
It involves knowing the time required for completing a job at the pace of customer request by
understanding the sequence of carrying out activities. Knowing the inventory quality available,
encouraging workers to adopt a standard procedure for working and practicing approaches in
other to facilitate improvement.
Principle 7: Use visual control so no problems are hidden.
This emphasis the ability of a worker or parties involved in a process to look at the process,
information or equipment and immediately determine the standard set to perform the task
within the process. This is explained in figure 8 where visual control is used at the train station to
direct passengers on how to get to their destinations.

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Illustrates further, that all processes and people should adopt the 5S Program (sorting, straighten,
shine, standardise and sustain). This helps to ensure working environment are tidy, productive
and efficient by helping workers to reduce time in search of required tools and ultimately to
improve working environment. The 5s program is illustrated in figure 9.
Principle 8: Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves your people and
processes.
Achieved by introducing new technology that adds value into a process by removing Muda. The
new technology is thoroughly tested to serve people and processes. Usually technology is
implemented by a pull from manufacturing and not pushed by other departments.
Principle 9: Grow leaders who thoroughly understand the work, live the philosophy, and teach It
to others.
It entails having grown leaders from within the organization like Toyota did, in other to avoid a
change of direction and eliminating unevenness. Leaders must adhere to the principles and
encourage workers accordingly. Whenever problem arises managers must be on ground to see
and understand the situation, this helps to promote the Toyota culture.
Principle 10: Develop exceptional people and teams who follow your company's philosophy.
Toyota achieved this by ensuring manager and team leader are capable and always there to
support the work of team members, problem solve issues and focusing on quality. The teams
should self-motivate, learn from each other and coordinate their work effectively. Also ensured

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that new members are given adequate orientation to introduce them to TPS concept, rules of
engagement and mission.
Principle 11: Respect your extended network of partners and suppliers by challenging them and
helping them improve.
Toyota went about treating their suppliers like family, with respect and dignity. Enforcing them
to perform better and always there to help them achieve it. They employed the process of
Jishuken which helped to develop networks and supplier’s association that helps to improve their
understanding on how to implement the TPS.
Principle 12: Go and see for yourself to thoroughly understand the Situation (Genchi Genbutsu).
Toyota emphasis the need for managers and designer alike to be on ground to see how design
affects processes. It is believed that if the situation is not personally experienced, one will not
have a proper understanding of how the situation can be improved.
Principle 13: Make decisions slowly by consensus, thoroughly consider all options; implement
decisions rapidly.
The application of this principle is to avoid hasty and not thoroughly thought out decisions where
steady methodical approaches are preferred. However, Toyota ensured that the Nemawashi
process (find out cause, determine cause, consideration, build resolution and use effective
communication tools) is adopted once a decision is made by implementing the decision’s quickly
Principle 14: Become a learning organization through relentless reflection (Hansei) and
continuous improvement (Kaizen).
This principle is a combination of all other principles to Toyota as an entity where continuous
improvement (kaizen), deep reflection (Hansei), organizational and individual goals (Hoshin and
Kanri) are all implemented across the TPS. The 5 whys process is adopted as a problem solving
technique to determine the improvement.
4.0. Developed Target Process:
In developing a target process based on the consideration of alternative approaches within the
identified processes in figure 2, 3a to 3c, it is suggested by the writer that building projects should
be processed concurrently in other to eliminate waste such as; reworks, waiting for information,
approvals and ultimately removing non-value adding elements. Figure 10 illustrates a proposed
building process that should be adopted for building process in other to facilitate effective
collaborative working and eliminate waste as against the generic approach illustrated in figure 2.

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Aqua Group (1999), made it clear that the traditional procurement method does not allow
overlapping of activities within the process (see figure 11). In the sense that before invitation to
tender occurs, the bill of quantities, specification and full set of drawing must have been
developed. This takes time, leads to delay when certain information is not ready and it affects
project overall productivity.

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Based on the detailed facts above, Figure 12 below emphasises an alternative approach in making
it more efficient in terms of speed for project delivery. This approach carries out activities at the
same time where the BOQ, specification and design are developed concurrently to facilitate a
quick tender process that leads to the selection of contractors, sub-contractors, suppliers and
specialist alike on time. Overall the lead time of the process will be short, collaborating working
and effective communication is encouraged amongst designers leading to fast project delivery.
5.0. Implementing Lean Production Principles:
In other to implement LPP and improve the highlighted seven challenges stated in the
introduction of this report, the management theories explained by Koskela and Howell (2002),
that project management theories are based on three theories such as management as Planning,
Execution and Control comes into play alongside with TPS principles. It is suggested by the writer
that the following approaches should be adopted in dealing with the challenges stated earlier in
regards to the office short comings as listed below;
i. Lack of well-structured brief, design changes and delayed client decision: In correcting

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these issues, management as planning must be spot on by ensuring that clients brief is properly
structured, client is certain of what is required to avoid changes to requirements and decision
making by both parties should not be delayed (although making decisions slowly by thoroughly
considering all options and implementing it rapidly in accordance to principle 13 of TPS is
essential). Alongside proper planning, management as organizing is also essential in the sense
that it considers human behaviour of managers capable of planning and acting. The “V” model is
as well useful because it helps to establish the beginning of development process based on client
requirement and specification. Implementing the suggested approach will help overcome the
issue of not having a well structure brief, occurrence of changes and delay in project management
within the office.
ii. Inappropriate distributing of tasks: Uneven distribution of work load will be resolved by
employing the management by Execution theory. This entails evenly allocating tasks to staffs
usually through a central body as indicated by Koskela and Howell (2002). During this process it
is important that the classical communication theory is followed when deciding to allocate task
and when communicating the tasks to staffs either orally or verbally. This can also be controlled
by implementing principle 4 of TPS, that emphasis the levelling out of workload amongst staffs.
This approach will eliminate nonvalue adding activities, overstressing of staffs with plenty
workload and unevenness.
iii. Misuse of time: This usually occurs during the convectional theories where Flow comes
into play, Shingo pointed out in Fleming (2008), that within the transformation occurs activities
such as waiting, inspection and moving, leading to time wasting. Figure 13 illustrates this in a
building design project, where the time wasted in waiting, inspecting and moving are uncalled
for. It is suggested that a better system should be in place where staffs should use their time
wisely on other activities such as tidying up during waiting. Inspecting should be done on time by
relevant parties by eliminating separate inspection and an appropriate layout should be adopted
during moving in other for overall project progression. Collaborative working should be
encouraged amongst designer to facilitate functional designs and eliminating all nonvalue adding
activities.

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iv. Delayed start to design tasks: It essential that relevant parties with relevant information
should endeavour to release such information on time to other parties to facilitate progress.
Assumptions must not be made by Architects because they become costly if it goes wrong and
correct information should be sought at all times. The writer suggest tasks should be
standardized in an outlined procedure highlighting how information should be shared, knowing
the time required to complete a task and encouraging staffs to follow standard procedure for
information sharing as stated by Principle 6 TPS. The Architect should also endeavour to adopt
the Andon system of principle 5 by building a culture of stopping to fix problems, when necessary
information is not available in other to get quality right the first time.
v. Take responsibility for preparation and implementing design: Taking responsibility for
the preparation and implementing design entails levelling out the workload (Heijunka)
accordingly. This involves sharing the workload to other staffs who are expected to take adequate
responsibility to whatever tasks they are given either in preparation or implementation. Adopting
this method will help eliminate Muda, Muri and Mura.
vi. Interference of information: The interference of drawing on site can be put under control
by adopting principle 7 of TPS where visual controls are used to share information, showcasing
the stage a task is, the time frames etc. in other to expose hidden problems and clarify roles
amongst designers. Another method is the use of a well prepared A3 sheet to explain in details
the approach employed in solving a given problem. Once these suggestions are followed, the
interference of information on site amongst designer will be brought to minimal because
everyone will know exactly what is expected of them at a given time and the overall progress of
the project will be clear.
vii. Transfer of senior designer’s experience: To develop young designers within the office,
existing senior designers must thoroughly understand the working tasks, live the philosophy, and
teach their skills to younger designers as illustrated in principle 9 TPS. This can be carried out in
collaboration with principle 10 TPS that emphasises the development of exceptional people and

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teams who adhere to company's philosophy. Senior designer should always support, motivate
and train younger designers in problem solving matters.
6.0. Plan for Continuous Improvement.
The plan for Continuous Improvement (CI) of the established process is essential in achieving a
continuous flow of customer satisfaction, on product quality and all participant’s commitments
in the process. Toyota achieved this by adopting a daily activity system developed to exceed the
performance of simple productivity improvement. This helps to eliminate both physical and
mental hard work, teaches workers how to identify waste in processes and overall humanising
the working environment.
Over the year’s various quality management gurus developed techniques for improving quality
management in other to control, improve and adhere to company philosophies, leading to Total
Quality Management (TQM). According to Codinhoto and Koskela (2008), Deming cycle (PDCA) a
management philosophy plan was developed by Deming, this entails CI plan focused on every
aspect of an organisation. Illustrated in figure 14 where each stages of the cycle pinpoints
essential approaches of achieving CI cycle and the requirements for each stage includes;
Plan: This is done when procedures are improved firstly by identifying wrong issues and deriving
ideas to rectify the issues.
Do: Corrections are developed to rectify identified issues either on experimental level or small
scale. This approach helps to reduce routine activities distraction during the testing stage to
ascertain if changes will work or otherwise.
Check: This stage is checking whether the corrections made in the Do stage are achieving the
desired results or not and continuously checking main activities to ensure that output/product
quality is maintained without new issues arising.
Act: Once the experiment becomes successful, change is implemented on larger scales and the
changes employed are incorporated into the routine of the activity. Not forgetting to involve
other participants whose cooperation are needed that would be affected by the changes.
Once the PDCA cycle is completed, it is important to start the process all over again in other to
begin the plan for further improvements to the operations. By doing this one is continuously
improving the operations to achieve good product quality/output, customer satisfaction,
employee’s efficiency etc.

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They further identified other techniques demonstrated by quality management gurus to include
but not limited to;
5 whys: This is adopted to ensure root causes of problems are identified effectively. This is
achieved by asking why 5 times and the response will tell the root cause of why problems
occurred. The technique makes it clear that the first response does not necessarily showcase the
root cause. Identifying and determining relationships between various root causes of problems
and being an easy procedure to complete are major benefits of using the 5 whys technique.
5s: This technique helps in CI by following the 5 steps;
• Sort: At the stage all unnecessary items not planned for use are removed from the working
environment i.e. rubbish/dirt. Removing unnecessary items does to consume time rather allows
for immediate improvement, for example not storing materials on site.
• Straighten: After sorting is done, straighten is carried by keeping things in order in the working
environment. For example, locating specific materials in specific locations making the use of them
easy and it leads to efficient productivity because time is spent on value adding.

24
• Scrub: The working environment should be maintained once cleaned and configured correctly.
It is important to identify who is responsible for cleaning and checking that the working
environment is clean by monitoring and allocating tasks to others accordingly.
• Standardise: At this stage a working procedure must be established to set standards which
must be maintained. Nakamura (1993), clarifies that, standards helps an organisation to improve
CI further and forms part of the PDCA cycle. The established standards and procedures should
include what needs to be done during abnormalities and normal circumstances.
• Self-discipline: Identifying and allocating responsibilities to people within an organisation is
important at the stage and putting in place signal warning allowing people to wait, check or do
something. This instils discipline and ensures an organisational culture of CI.
It is important to adopt these methods to continuously improve performance, however the need
for continuous improvement is not focused on anyone within the workplace, rather from high
level managers to junior operatives within the organisation. Moreover, middle managers should
be responsible for implementing CI by ensuring the performance of different aspects of the
organisation are in line with CI plan in place. To ensure that everyone is aware of CI and capable
of implementing the appropriate tools. Not forgetting to improve communication, open to
feedbacks and willing to implement positive suggestions. All other employees must follow the
strategy and be ready to participate using the tools provided and offering suggestions for CI at
all stages.
There are Other tools advocated by Imai (1986), among which are the 5S concept, 5 Whys and
the Ishikawa diagram. Greif (1991), pointed out the use of visual management, where visual
charts are used to show the quality, output and safety measures in place.
7.0. Conclusion
A conclusion is derived based on the all findings that the LLP should be implemented into the
design processes the office embarks on in continuing to provide design services for the repeat
client. It is important to stress the implementation of effective communication and collaborative
working amongst all participants in order to prevent waiting, inspecting, moving stages and
overall to eliminate all non-value adding elements within the process.

25
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