In the wake of the technological revolution that began in the last decades of the 20th century, labour market demand for information-processing and other high-level cognitive and interpersonal skills is growing substantially. The Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), was designed to provide insights into the availability of some of these key skills in society and how they are used at work and at home. The first survey of its kind, it directly measures proficiency in several information-processing skills – namely literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments. This volume reports results from the 24 countries and regions that participated in the rst round of the survey in 2011-12 (first published in OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills) and from the nine additional countries that participated in the second round in 2014-15 (Chile, Greece, Indonesia [Jakarta], Israel, Lithuania, New Zealand, Singapore, Slovenia and Turkey). It describes adults’ proficiency in the three information-processing skills assessed, and examines how skills proficiency is related to labour market and social outcomes.

1. Why skills matter
FURTHER RESULTS FROM THE SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
1
Andreas Schleicher
Director for the Directorate of Education and Skills

2. Note on statistical data on Israel
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and are under the
responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such
data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan
Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank
under the terms of international law.
This document and any map included herein are without
prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to
the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to
the name of any territory, city or area.

3. Survey of Adult Skills in brief
in literacy, numeracy and
problem solving in technology-
rich environments.
215 thousand adults…
Representing 815 millions 16-65 year-olds in 33
countries/economies
Took an internationally
agreed assessment…
The assessment was administered either in
computer-based or paper-based versions

4. Survey of Adult Skills in brief
Sample sizes ranged from..
a minimum of approximately 4 500 to a
maximum of nearly 27 300
The survey collected background
information of adults for about 40 minutes.
Respondents with very low literacy
skills were directed to a test of basic
“reading component” skills.
The survey also collects a range of generic skills
such as collaborating with others and organising
one’s time, required of individuals in their work.

5. Literacy
The ability to...
Understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts.
In order to..
Achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential.
Literacy encompasses a range of skills from..
The decoding of written words and sentences
The comprehension, interpretation and evaluation of complex texts.
Numeracy
The ability to…
Access, use, interpret and communicate mathematical information and ideas
In order to..
Engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adults.
Numeracy involves
Managing a situation or solving a problem in a real context, by responding to mathematical
content/information/ideas represented in multiple ways.
Technology
Rich Problem
Solving
The ability to…
Use digital technology communication tools and networks to acquire and evaluate information,
communicate with others and perform practical tasks.
The assessment focuses on the abilities to…
Solve problems for personal, work and civic purposes by setting up appropriate goals and plans, and
accessing and making use of information through computers and computer networks.
“Key information-processing skills”
5
Survey of Adult Skills Skills
assessed

6. Literacy item
Level = 4 (low)
Sample items - Literacy
6

7. Survey of Adult Skills
Participating countries: Round 1
7
2011-12
(**see notes A and B in the Reader’s Guide).

8. 2014-15
Survey of Adult Skills
Participating countries, Round 2
8(**see notes A and B in the Reader’s Guide).

9. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
Why skills matter?
What people know and what they can do with what they know
has a major impact on their life chances
9

10. 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
High levels of
trust
High levels of
political
efficacy
Participation in
volunteer
activities
High levels of
health
High wages
Percentage-point difference between Level 4 or 5 and Level 1 or below
Literacy and social outcomes

11. Labour productivity and the use of
reading skills at work
AustraliaAustria
Canada
Chile
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
Flanders (Belgium)
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Lithuania
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Russian Federation
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Turkey
UK
United States
Slope = 0.666
R² = 0.321
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3
Labourproductivity(log)
Mean use of reading skills at work

12. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
The level and distribution of skills differs
markedly across countries
Much of the variation in skills proficiency is observed within countries,
so most countries have significant shares of struggling adults
12

13. 150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
Literacy score
Literacy proficiency of adults
1. Note regarding Cyprus
Note by Turkey
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority
representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Turkey recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC).
Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position concerning
the “Cyprus issue”.
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union
The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Turkey. The information in this
document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.

14. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Interquartile range
Variation in literacy proficiency Only 2.4% of 55-65-year-
olds Singaporeans reach
literacy level 4

15. Low performers in literacy and/or numeracy
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Proportion of the
population
in both literacy and numeracy
in literacy only
in numeracy only
At or below Level 1
A quarter of 55-65-year-old
Singaporeans don’t reach
Level 1 (OECD 8%)

16. 210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
OECD literacy Singapore literacy
OECD numeracy Singapore numeracy
Literacy and numeracy proficiency
by age: Singapore

17. 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Score
Literacy skills
in younger and older generations 55-65 to 16-24 years
Average 55-65
year-olds
Average 16-24
year-olds
Chile
Singapore
Lithuania
France
Germany
New Zealand
US
UK

18. 1968-1977 1978-1987 1998-2007 2008-20161988-1997
1972-1980 1981-1990 2001-2010 2011-20201991-2000
55-65 45-54 35-44 25-34 16-24
Age distribution of the Survey of
Adult Skills
22
Age
range:
University graduation year
High-School graduation year

19. 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40
Turkey
Greece
Chile
Lithuania
Israel
United States
Poland
Russian Federation
Ireland
Slovak Republic
England (UK)
Northern Ireland (UK)
Japan
OECD average
Slovenia
Estonia
Denmark
Austria
Australia
Canada
New Zealand
Germany
Czech Republic
Norway
Flanders (Belgium)
Netherlands
Sweden
Finland
Korea
Singapore
Level 2 Level 3 Level 2 Level 3
Proportion
of adults at
levels 2 or 3
Digital problem-solving skills
Young adults (16-24 year-olds) Older adults (55-65 year-olds)

20. Evolution of employment in occupational groups
defined by level of skills proficiency
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Occupations with
highest average scores
Occupations with next
to highest average
scores
Occupations with next
to lowest average
scores
Occupations with
lowest average scores
%

21. The kind of things that
are easy to teach are
now easy to automate,
digitize or outsource

22. Robotics

23. >1m km,
one minor accident,
occasional human
intervention

24. Augmented Reality

25. A lot more to come
3D printing
Synthetic biology
Brain enhancements
Nanomaterials
Etc.

26. The Race between Technology and Education
Inspired by “The race between
technology and education”
Pr. Goldin & Katz (Harvard)
Industrial revolution
Digital revolution
Social pain
Universal
public schooling
Technology
Education
Prosperity
Social pain
Prosperity

27. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
More education does not
automatically translate into
better skills, better jobs and
better lives
36

28. Mean literacy proficiency and distribution of
literacy scores, by educational attainment
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
Lower than high school
High school
College
United
States
Score
25th
percentile
Mean
75th
percentile
Lower than high school
High school
College
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
Japan
Score
37
Qualifications don’t always
equal skills
Level 2Level 1 and below

29. 150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
310
330
Less than upper secondary Upper secondary Tertiary
Literacy proficiency by level
of educational attainment (25-65 year olds):

30. 150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
310
330
Less than upper secondary Upper secondary Tertiary
Literacy proficiency by level
of educational attainment (25-34 year olds):

31. Percentage of adults in level 4/5 literacy
proficiency by level of education
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Japan
Finland
Netherlands
Sweden
Australia
Norway
NewZealand
England(UK)
UnitedStates
Canada
OECD…
Germany
France
Singapore
Korea
Slovenia
Israel
Greece
Spain
Lithuania
Italy
Chile
Turkey
Jakarta…
Below upper secondary education Upper secondary Tertiary education
%

32. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
43
In some countries, social background has a major impact on skill
In Singapore, Germany, Indonesia, Chile and the United States, social background has a major
impact on literacy skills. The children of parents with low levels of education have significantly
lower proficiency than those whose parents have higher levels of education, even after taking
other factors into account.

33. 190
210
230
250
270
290
310
330
Neither parent has attained upper secondary
At least one parent has attained tertiary
Literacy proficiency
by parental education

34. -10
0
10
20
30
Numeracy (Men - Women) Literacy (Men - Women)
Advantage to men
Advantage to women
Literacy and numeracy
score differences between men and women

35. -10
0
10
20
30 Numeracy (Men - Women)
Advantage to men
Advantage to women
Gender gaps in literacy and numeracy
-10
0
10
20
30
Literacy (Men - Women)
Advantage to men
Advantage to women

36. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
Successful integration is not simply a matter of time.
In some countries, the time elapsed since immigrants arrived appears to
make little difference to their proficiency in literacy and numeracy,
suggesting either that the incentives to learn the language of the receiving
country are not strong or that policies that encourage learning the language
of the receiving country are of limited effectiveness
…and also of immigrants
Foreign-language immigrants with low levels of
education tend to have low skills
48

37. Literacy proficiency by immigrant background
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
Native-born In host country 5 or fewer years In host country more than 5 years
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
Native-born In host country 5 or fewer years
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
Native-born

38. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
Success is increasingly about
building skills beyond formal
education
50

39. Participation in all education and training, by
literacy level (Adults aged 25-65 years)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Levels 4/5 Level 1 or below%

40. Lessons from
strong
performers
High quality initial
education and lifelong
learning
• Investing in high quality early
childhood education and initial
schooling, particularly for
children from disadvantaged
backgrounds
• Financial support targeted at
disadvantage
• Opportunities and incentives to
continued development of
proficiency, both outside work
and at the workplace.

41. Lessons from
strong
performers
Make learning
everybody’s business
• Governments, employers,
workers and parents need
effective and equitable
arrangements as to who does
and pays for what, when and
how
• Recognise that individuals with
poor skills are unlikely to
engage in education on their
own and tend to receive less
employer-sponsored training .

42. Lessons from
strong
performers
Effective links between
learning and work
• Emphasis on workbased
learning allows people to
develop hard skills on modern
equipment and soft skills
through real-world experience
• Employer engagement in
education and training with
assistance to SMEs
• Strengthen relevance of
learning, both for workplace
and workers broader
employability .

43. Lessons from
strong
performers
Allow workers to adapt
learning to their lives
• Flexibility in content and
delivery (part-time, flexible
hours, convenient location)
• Distance learning and open
education resources .

44. Lessons from
strong
performers
Identify those who can
benefit from learning
most
• Disadvantaged adults need to
be offered and encouraged to
improve their learning
• Foreign-language migrants
• Older adults
• Show how adults can benefit
from improved skills, both
economically and socially .

45. Lessons from
strong
performers
Improve transparency
• Easy-to-find information about
adult education activities
• Combination of easily
searchable, up-to-date online
information and personal
guidance and counselling
services
• Less educated workers tend to
be less aware of the
opportunities
• Recognise and certify skills
proficiency .

46. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
Putting skills to effective use
Skills will only translate into better economic
and social outcomes if they are used
effectively
59

47. 1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Level 1 or
below
Level 2 Level 3 Levels 4
and 5
Literacy
Indexofuse
Reading at work Writing at work
Skills use at work, by proficiency level
OECD average
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Level 1 or
below
Level 2 Level 3 Levels 4
and 5
Numeracy
Numeracy at work
Most frequent use = 5
Less frequent use = 1
Most frequent use = 5
Less frequent use = 1

48. 150
200
250
300
350
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Proficiencyinliteracyscore
Readinguseatwork
Reading at work (left hand axis) Literacy proficiency (rigth hand axis)
Skills use at work and skills proficiency of working
population

49. 2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Reading Writing Numeracy ICT Problem solving
Indexofuse
1-10 employees 11-50 employees 51-250 employees
251-1000 employees 1000+ employees
Skills use at work, by proficiency
level, by firm size (OECD average)
Most frequent use = 5
Less frequent use = 1

50. Effect of education, literacy proficiency and
reading use at work on wages
Percentage change in wages associated with a one standard deviation increase in years of education,
proficiency in literacy and reading use at work
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Years of education Proficiency (literacy) Reading at work
%

51. 02040
Qualification mismatch
02040
Literacy mismatch
02040
Field-of-study mismatch
Mismatched (over) Mismatched (under) Total mismatch
Mismatch (percent of workers)
%
%
%

52. Effect of qualification, literacy and
field-of-study mismatch on wages
Percentage difference in wages between overqualified, overskilled or field-of-study mismatched workers
and their well-matched counterparts
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Over-qualified
(Ref: same qualifications, well-matched job)
Overskilled in literacy
(Ref: same skills, well-matched job)
Field-of-study mismatched
(Ref: same field of staudy, well-matched job)
%

53. SURVEY OF ADULT SKILLS
Skills are
everybody’s business
66

54. Lessons from
strong
performers
Guidance
• Timely data about demand for
and supply of skills
• Competent personnel who
have the latest labour-market
information at their fingertips
to steer learners
• Qualifications that are
coherent and easy to interpret
.

55. Lessons from
strong
performers
Flexible labour-markets
• Labour-market arrangements
that facilitate effective skill use
and address skill mismatches
• Encourage mobility to optimise
skill match .

56. Lessons from
strong
performers
Help employers make
better use of workers
skills
• Flexible work arrangements
that accommodate workers
with care obligations and
disabilities
• Encourage older workers to
remain in the labour market
• Encourage employers to hire
those who temporarily
withdrew from the labour
market .

57. Lessons from
strong
performers
Help economies move up
the value chain
• Governments can influence
both employer competitiveness
strategies and product-market
strategies, which determine in
what markets the company
competes
• Strengthen 21st century skills
• Foster entrepreneurship.

58. Data products
Data Explorer
Public Use Files (all countries except Australia)
Background Questionnaire
Codebook
SAS and STATA tools
IEA Data Analyser
Technical Report
Education and Skills On-line

59. Find Out More at:
www.oecd.org/skills/piaac
All national and international publications
The complete micro-level database
Without data, you are just another person with an opinion
…and remember:
Email
Andreas.Schleicher@OECD.org
Twitter
@SchleicherEDU
72