Sustainability of Aquaculture in Bangladesh

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Sustainability of Aquaculture in Bangladesh
Introduction
Aquaculture and fisheries currently is one of the most important potential sectors of
the national economy, accounting to 5% of gross domestic product and 6% of foreign
export earnings. Labor employment in this sector has been increasing by 6%
approximately. No other sector in Bangladesh illustrates development potential more
clearly than fisheries. The total fish production in Bangladesh in 2011 was estimated
at 2.8 million tons, of which 1.14 million tons (41%) were obtained from inland
aquaculture, 1.08 million tons (38%) from capture fisheries and 0.58 million tons
(21%) from marine fisheries (DoF, 2011).
Of all the global food production systems, aquaculture is widely perceived as an
important weapon in the global fight against poverty and hunger. Aquaculture
production, especially pond aquaculture may be a dependable source of obtaining
increased fish production in order to supply and feed the ever increasing population
of the world (FAO, 2010).
What is Sustainable Aquaculture?
Sustainable aquaculture is a dynamic concept and the sustainability of an
aquaculture system will vary with species, location, societal norms and the state of
knowledge and technology. Several certification programs have made progress in
defining key characteristics of sustainable aquaculture.
Aquaculture system to be truly sustainable, it must have:
 Environmental sustainability — Aquaculture should not create significant
disruption to the ecosystem, or cause the loss of biodiversity or substantial
pollution impact.
 Economic sustainability — Aquaculture must be a viable business with
good long-term prospects.
 Social and community sustainability — Aquaculture must be socially
responsible and contribute to community well-being.
Several certification programs have made progress in defining key characteristics of
sustainable aquaculture. Some essential practices include:
 Environment practices: Mangrove and wetland conservation; effective
effluent management and water quality control; sediment control and sludge
management; soil and water conservation; efficient fishmeal and fish oil use;
responsible sourcing of bloodstock and juvenile fish; control of escapes and
minimizing biodiversity and wildlife impact.
 Community practices: Establish well-defined rights, aquaculture zones and

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responsibilities for aquaculturists; regulatory compliance and effective
enforcement; community involvement; worker safety, fair labor practices and
equitable compensation.
 Sustainable business and farm management practices: Effective
biosecurity and disease control systems; minimal antibiotic and
pharmaceutical use; microbial sanitation; maintain global standards for
hygiene; efficient and humane harvest and transport; accountable record-
keeping and traceability; profitability.
Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities needed for a means of
living (Scoones, 1998). A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover
from stresses and shocks, and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, both
now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base (DFID, 1999).
According to Scoones (1998), five key indicators are important for assessing
sustainable livelihoods:
1) Poverty reduction,
2) Well-being and capabilities,
3) Livelihood adaptation,
4) Vulnerability and resilience, and
5) Natural resource base sustainability.
The SLA is prominent in recent development programs that aim to reduce poverty
and vulnerability in communities engaged in small-scale aquaculture and fisheries
(Edwards et al., 2002; Neiland and Bene, 2004). The livelihoods approach seeks to
improve rural development policy and practice by recognising the seasonal and
cyclical complexity of livelihood strategies (Carney, 2002; Allison and Ellis,2001).
Fig: The sustainable livelihood framework (source: DFID, 1999, Adato and Meinzen
Dick, 2002)

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Sustainability assessment framework
The term and concept of sustainability in the agricultural field has received much
attention since the late 1980s, when it became a part of the long-term perspective on
economic growth (Franceschi and Kahn, 2003). There are many definitions of
sustainability in the literatures from various disciplines. Pretty et al. (2008) stated that
resilience and persistence, in addition to economic, social and environmental
outcomes, need to be considered with respect to sustainability of agriculture
systems. Ecologists define ‘a sustainable agricultural (aquaculture) system with a
non-negative change in the stock of natural resources and environmental quality
over time’ and economists define ‘a sustainable agricultural (aquaculture) system
with a non-negative trend in productivity’ (Leung and El-Gayar, 1997).
Background of Coastal Aquaculture
Shrimp aquaculture in Bangladesh began its expansion in 1971. The export oriented
shrimp industry took off in the 1980s, when large-scale shrimp aquaculture in higher
income countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, China, the Philippines and Taiwan
began to suffer from environmental and social damage (Ito 2002). Increased fishing
Pressure on natural marine shrimp stocks and maximum harvesting in all available
areas fuelled the initiation of large-scale shrimp farming in coastal areas. From the
early 1980s, the government of Bangladesh has supported the improvement of
shrimp farming (Islam and Wahab 2005). Shrimp farming rapidly expanded in the
coastal districts, including Shatkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, and Cox’s Bazar, and
Bangladesh is now one of the major exporting countries of P. monodon and M.
rosenbergii in the world (New 2005). Currently, there are about 16,237 brackish
water shrimp (P. monodon) farms covering about 148,093 ha and 36,109 fresh water
shrimp (M. rosenbergii) farms covering about 17,638 ha
Sustainability Issues
The environmental and social impacts of shrimp farming include large-scale
degradation of mangroves, alteration of wetlands, land subsidence, salinization of
ground and surface water, pollution of agricultural lands and coastal waters by pond
effluents and sludge, introduction of exotic species or pathogens into coastal
environment, loss of wild larvae and subsequent loss of goods and services
generated by natural common property resources.
Mangroves and Wetlands Destruction
Mangroves and wetlands are important ecosystems, both ecologically and
economically (Baran and Hambrey 1998; Nickerson 1999; Islam and Wahab 2005).
Globally, more than a third of the mangrove forests have disappeared in recent
decades, and shrimp culture is by far the greatest cause of this. If losses attributable
to fish farming are included, mariculture is responsible for more than half of the
losses of mangroves (Valiela and others 2001). Most of the shrimp farms in
Southeast Asia, including Thailand, the Philippines and Vietnam, are derived from

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mangroves and coastal wetlands (Flaherty and Karnjanakesorn 1995; Primavera
1995; Be´land and others 2006). In Bangladesh extensive coastal lands have been
converted to shrimp farms, but the direct contribution to mangrove destruction has
rarely been quantified. One study reported that the loss of approximately 9,734 ha of
mangrove in the southeastern part could be directly attributed to shrimp culture
(Shahid and Islam 2003). The mangrove ‘Chakaria Sundarbans’ has disappeared
due to various anthropogenic interventions which include fuelwood collection, human
settlement, salt production and shrimp farming (Hossain and others 2001; Islam and
Wahab 2005).
Soil Acidity
Aquaculture ponds in mangrove areas give rise to highly acidified soils as a result of
exposure to air. This results in low pH of pond water and high levels of dissolved
aluminum in a form that is highly toxic to aquatic animal life. The stress caused by
high acidity makes the cultured animals susceptible to diseases and parasites and
may even cause death. In Bangladesh several shrimp disease outbreaks and
production losses have been linked to acid sulfate soils (Deb 1998). Many shrimp
farms of coastal zones in Southeast Asia including Taiwan, Thailand and Indonesia
have been abandoned due to acid sulfate soils and associated problems (Lin 1989;
World Bank and others 2002).
Salinization of Soil and Water
The use of large volumes of underground freshwater to generate brackish water for
shrimp culture led to the lowering of groundwater levels, emptying of aquifers, land
subsidence and salinization of adjacent land and waterways in Taiwan and other
Southeast Asian countries (Primavera 2006). The discharge of saltwater from shrimp
farms also causes salinization in adjoining rice and other agricultural lands. In
southwestern Bangladesh, saltwater intrusion has caused problems in terms of
severely decreased supplies of potable freshwater, which again has led to increase
of gastrointestinal infections as well as loss of diversified crops, poultry and fodders
(Ali 2006).
Loss of Fry and Wild Stock
Harvesting of wild PLs is highly wasteful in terms of mortality of PLs and discarded
bycatch, and ecologically destructive (Primavera 1998; Bhattacharya and Sarkar
2003). In Bangladesh approximately 2,000 million shrimp fry are collected annually
from wild sources. For fresh water shrimp (M. rosenbergii) more than 90% of the
total PL is derived from natural sources and for black tiger shrimp (P. monodon) it is
more than 50% (Banks 2003). Approximately 40% of the collected seed die before
stocking in culture facilities due to poor handling and transportation (Brown 1997)
and the amount of discarded bycatch is staggering. Hoq and others (2001) estimated
that about 12–55 post larvae of other shrimp species, 5–152 larvae of finfish and 26–
1636 other macro-zooplankton organisms are discarded in the collection of a single
P. monodon post larva.

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Demand for Fish Meal, Fish Oil and Trash Fish for Aquaculture
Fish meal and fish oil made from low value trash fish are still used primarily by
poultry and swine industries, but aquaculture, including shrimp, has the fastest
growing demand for these commodities. The proportion of fish meal supplies used
for aquaculture rose from 10% in 1988 to 17% in 1994, 33% in 1997 and 65–68% in
2002 (Tacon 2005). Larsson and others (1994) estimated that more than 80% of the
primary production required to feed the shrimps is derived from external ecosystems,
and furthermore, a semi-intensive shrimp farm needs a spatial ecosystem support
‘the ecological footprint’ that is 35–190 times larger than the surface area of the farm.
In Bangladesh shrimp farmers traditionally use apple snail (Pila globosa) meat to
feed farmed shrimp. The estimated harvest of snails from various wetlands, canals
and paddy fields in 1999 was 365,849 m (Chowdhury 1999). The demand for snails
intensified with the expansion of ghers. As a results P. globosa disappeared from
many wetlands of southwestern region (Williams and Khan 2001).
A sustainable future for shrimp production in Bangladesh
In recent years aquaculture has become more and more important for Asia,
particularly in Bangladesh. It represents the second largest export industry for
Bangladesh a!er garments with 97% of the shrimp produced being exported,
contributing about 4% to national GDP and employing approximately 1.2 million
people for production, processing and marketing activities. Including their families,
this sees approximately 4.8 million Bangladeshi people directly dependent on this
sector for their livelihood.
However, while the Bangladeshi shrimp industry grows, it has also drawn some
controversy. Some groups argue in favour of the industry, asserting that it produces
nutritious food, releases the pressure on our overfished oceans and meat
production, and contributes to the income of poor farmers who have no other
possibilities for improving their situation. Others warn against buying these shrimps
and accuse the industry of a variety of abuses, ranging from environmental
degradation, to endangering local food security, to social considerations of low
salaries, insecure work and bad working conditions.
These diverse aspects are all the more important considering that Bangladesh is the
country with the highest population density in the world, is one of the most
threatened by climate change, and has a large number of people below the poverty
line. Consumers in countries importing Bangladeshi shrimp must navigate different
one-sided perspectives and rarely have a balanced opportunity to weigh advantages
and disadvantages, to help them judge what ethical and sustainable aquaculture
production and consumption should look like.

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Indicator-based sustainability assessment of shrimp farming
Fig: Selected indicators for sustainability assessment of shrimp farming in
Bangladesh
Fig: The three-dimensional conceptual framework for sustainability assessment of
shrimpfarming

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Sustainable aquaculture in small water bodies
While human-made pressure on the natural fish production system has been
accelerated by the construction of flood control and irrigation dams, and overfishing
has caused the production from capture fisheries to decline sharply over the years,
innumerable waterbodies in the form of ponds, ditches and natural depressions still
remained fallow or underutilized in Bangladesh. Efforts to introduce aquaculture
technologies to bring these untapped resources to productive use will definitely be
an additional source of cash income for the farm household. Experiences of adoption
of improved aquaculture technologies that have been developed through on-station
and on-farm research to suit the farmers' conditions suggest that the decline in
capture fisheries production can be supplemented with fish production by utilizing
these waterbodies. The technologies that were tested were low cost and based on
farm generated resources and by-products which enabled farmers to be less
dependent on credit and commercial inputs. Farmers were able to realize four times
the pre-extension production level. Moreover, integration of aquaculture into the
farming system has raised the possibility of more efficient use of on-farm resources
as well as increase the on-farm supply of fish for household consumption. The
implications for adoption by resource-poor farmer and sustainability of aquaculture
practices were discussed in the context of equity and benefits to target groups.
What are the main problems with aquaculture?
Unsustainable aquaculture can devastate our oceans and the environment and
impact on local people's food and security.
Some examples include:
 The extraction of marine species from oceans, including wild juveniles vital for
future stock growth, increasing the burden on wild fish stocks and having
major food security implications;
 Fishmeal and so-called 'trash fish' used for feed production - often the main
food for local people - taken for use in aquaculture ponds;
 The release of organic wastes (that, for instance, act as plant nutrients for
harmful algal blooms) and toxic effluents into the oceans;
 The destruction of coastal ecosystems, displacement of coastal communities
and depletion of fresh water sources to build aquaculture ponds.
What kind of aquaculture is sustainable?
There are no species that are sustainable as such. The sustainability of a species
depends on its feeding and lifecycle habits, as well as the farming operation. Only
species that are plant eaters, who can breed in captivity, and whose farming does
not produce high levels of nutrient output can be cultivated sustainably.

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There are a number of conditions an aquaculture operation must adhere to in order
to be sustainable. Among other things, an aquaculture operation can only be
regarded as sustainable if it:
 Is continually moving towards plant-based feeds originating from sustainable
agriculture;
 Does not use fishmeal or fish-oil-based feeds from unsustainable fisheries
and does not represent a net loss in fish protein yield;
 Does not use wild-caught juveniles;
 Only cultivates species that are native in open water systems, and then only
in bag nets, closed-wall sea-pens or equivalent systems (if there is cultivation
of non-native species, it must be restricted to land-based tanks);
 Does not result in negative environmental impacts in terms of discharges and
effluents to the surrounding areas;
 Does not result in negative effects to local wildlife (plants as well as animals)
or represents a risk to local wild populations;
 Does not use genetically engineered fish or feed;
 Uses stocking densities that minimize the risk of disease outbreaks and
transmission;
 Does not deplete local resources, for example, drinking water supplies and
mangrove forests;
 Does not threaten human health;
 Supports the long-term economic and social well-being of local communities.
Conclusion
Aquaculture in developing countries can improve the sustainability of small-scale
farms provided that it isfully integrated with other enterprisesand household activities
so as to allow farm families and communities to manage their natural resources
effectively. Aquaculture, in common with all other food production practices, is facing
challenges for sustainable development. Most aqua-farmers, like their terrestrial
counterparts, are continuously pursuing ways and means of improving their
production practices, to make them more efficient and cost-effective. Awareness of
potential environmental problems has increased significantly. Efforts are under way
to further improve human capacity, resource use and environmental management in
aquaculture.

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