construction safety and fire engineering notes safety operations in various construction activity safe handling and storage of construction materials fire resisting walls design principles retrofitting of fire damaged structures

1. SAFETY IN HANDLING OF CEMENT
1. Proper eye protection is essential.
2. Wear full cover goggles or safety glasses with side shields.
3. When lifting the cement, your back should be straight ,legs bent, and weight between your legs as
close to the body.
4. After the concrete is deposited, it should be pushed into the final position with a shovel.
5. Care should be taken to avoid skin irritation.
6. The best way to avoid skin irritation is to wash with pH neutral soap and clean water.
7. Wetted clothing worn as protection should not be allowed.
8. Water proof gloves, a long sleeved shirt, and long pants should be worn.
9. Head protection: hard hats are required on construction sites.
10. Back strain: do not twist or bend at the waist.
SAFETY IN STORAGE
1. Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause fire, or explosions.
2. Place stored materials inside the building that are under construction and at least 6 feet from hoist
ways.
3. Separate non-compatible materials.
4. Moisture should kept away from cement.
5. Avoid storing of cement in jute bags for a period longer then 3 months.
SAFETY IN STACKING
1. The cement bags should be stack in piles.
2. Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and no more than 20 feet if using
a forklift.
3. Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking.
4. Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracings.
5. Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting.
6. Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure.
7. Band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink plastic fiber.
8. Paint walls with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights for quick reference.

2. 9. While removing cement bags from pile, then steps should be formed by taking out 2 or 3 bags
from front piles.
10. The walls, roof and floor should be of water proof.
STACKING OF BRICKS
1. Stack bricks in a manner that will keep them from falling.
2. Do not stack them more than 7 feet high.
3. Taper back a loose brick stack after it is 4 feet high.
Stepped stack Triangular stack lean -to stack
SAFETY IN HANDLING PAINTS AND VARNISH
1. Getting information and training to use solvent.
2. Make full use of Local Exhaust Ventilation(LEV).
3. Use water based paints rather than solvent based.
4. Dispose solvent contaminated rags.
5. Make most use of natural ventilation.
6. Use automated handling rather than hands.
7. Wear PPE(Gloves,Apron,Goggles etc).
8. Wash thoroughly after working with paints and varnishes.
9. Do not eat or smoke in solvent using area.
10. Captures airborne contaminents.
11. It prevents contaminents from landing on skin.

3. SAFETY IN STORAGE AND HANDLING OF STEEL, GLASS AND PAINT
STORAGE
1. Store materials in a planned and orderly manner.
2. Ensure stacks, tiers, and piles are stable.
3. Store hazardous materials in accordance with the individual requirements.
4. Store all materials on pallets to discourage rodent infestation.
5. Use slings to hoist bagged material.
6. Open yard storage requires attention to combustible materials.
7. Storing materials indoors requires attention to access, fire prevention etc.
STEEL STORAGE AND HANDLING
1. Many accidents occur during the storage and handling of steel.
2. Accidents cause enormous social and economic cost.
3. Injuries could have been avoided.
4. Applying the guidance to work will help manage the risks better and create safer working
environment.
5. Identify the main health and safety hazards and properly assess the risks.
6. Recognize the most common stock storage systems and handling.
STORAGE
1. Stock should always be stored and stacked so that it is not likely to fall, move or cause injury.
2. Limit the height of stored stock and minimise stock movements.
3. Stored stock can either be restrained or free standing.
4. Bore-vertical coils and long, broad stock suited to being stored free-standing .
5. Splitting racks as temporary storage.
6. Temporary storage require additional measures to ensure its stability and safety.
7. Accommodate the intended product dimensions and safely support the maximum anticipated
loading.
8. Key information about the requirements for safe use of storage equipment.
9. Choice of storage system depends on number of factors including location of storage; available
space and access requirements; floor type; type and stability of stock etc.

4. 10. Products stored in open affected by environmental conditions.
11. Make suitable arrangements for preventing slips.
12. Protect the racking from impact damage.
13. Uneven, inclined or wet/muddy ground can affect stock stability.
14. Provide adequate lighting .
15. Traffic and movement large masses causes instability.
16. Safe means of access to make sure falls from height are prevented.
17. Develop safe systems of work for operating the storage systems.
18. Include a criteria for replacement of damaged parts of racking.
HANDLING
1. Lifting operations properly planned by a competent person; appropriately supervised; carried out
in a safe manner.
2. Lifting operations can often put people at great risk of injury.
3. Properly resource, plan and organize lifting operations so they are carried out in a safe manner.
4. Identify the appropriate resources, including the number and skills of people, necessary for safe
completion of the job.
5. Banding wire or straps should never be used for lifting stock.
6. Banding wire or straps should never be used for lifting stock.
7. Any person using lifting equipment must be suitably trained and instructed.
8. Cranes should only be used for vertical lifting.
9. The height at which loads are raised should be kept to a minimum.
10. Loads should never be carried or suspended over personnel.
11. Persons should be in a position of safety not at risk of being struck by the lifting equipment.
12. Visiting drivers should also have a designated safe area where they can observe the
loading/unloading process as necessary.
GLASS STORAGE AND HANDLING
1. Loading and unloading glass from shipping containers, particularly those with closed tops.
2. Loading and unloading vehicles or timber packaging, where glass may have moved during
freight.

5. 3. Being hit by falling glass due to unsafe lifting techniques.
4. Not using appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
5. Moving, handling and storing glass sheets.
STORAGE AND HANDLING
1. Never restrain glass by hand.
2. Use the right mechanical lifting aids.
3. Keep the work area tidy.
4. Have a lifting plan.
5. Stand clear of glass sheets when moving them.
6. Use a suitable trolley or A Frame.
7. Activate trolley brakes and remove restraints when loading and unloading.
8. Avoid accessing sheets from the middle of the stack.
9. Educate workers.
10. Wear appropriate PPE.
11. Glass panes used in building construction shall be stacked on edge with suitable supports.
12. Glass edges shall be covered or otherwise protected to prevent injuries to workmen passing-by.
13. Waste glass pieces shall be stored or disposed of in such a manner as to avoid injuries to
workmen.
14. Workmen handling glass panes, waste glass pieces and fibre glass shall be provided with suitable
hand protection.
PAINT STORAGE AND HANDLING
1. Painters could be exposed to a variety of eye irritants.
2. Paint Department members are exposed to variety of respiratory hazards.
3. Construction activities occurring around paint shop employees may expose them to high noise
levels.
4. Some can cause permanent skin damage.
5. Serious risk of exposure occurs when spraying isocyanate products in the studio.
6. Isocyanates are known sensitizers that can cause asthma attacks if exposed again.

6. STORAGE AND HANDLING
1. Store products in a cool environment.
2. Store products away from ignition sources.
3. Do not store incompatible products side by side.
4. Mark storage locations with signs/warnings.
5. Have easy access to fire extinguishers.
6. Fire extinguishers should be appropriate for the products being stored.
7. Keep product containers tightly closed when not in use.
8. Keep product containers upright.
9. Prevent product containers from being damaged.
10. Keep product containers in a well-ventilated area.
11. Keep product containers in a dry location.
12. Paint scrapings and paint-saturated rags and debris shall be removed daily from the premises.
13. Sources of ignition of any kind shall be permitted in areas or rooms where spray painting is
being done.
14. Each employee have her or his own respirator that fits comfortably and properly.
15. Respirators must form a proper seal with the face of the user.
16. Eye protection includes safety glasses, chemical goggles and face shields.
17. Noise hazard areas must be posted.
18. Hearing protective devices used.
19. Gloves, boots, aprons and coveralls protect from skin damage.
SAFETY IN STORAGE OF FLAMMABLE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
1. All hazardous materials should be clearly labelled for benefit of current users.
2. Repair or replace damaged or missing labels.
3. Do not store chemicals alphabetically unless they are compatible.
4. Store inflammable liquids in approved safety containers.
5. Seggregate acids from bases.
6. Keep flammables away from all ignition sources like open flames, hot surfaces, direct sunlight
and spark sources.

7. 7. Store flammables separate from other hazard classes, especially oxidizers and toxics.
8. Separate flammable gases from oxidizing gases with an approved non-combustible partition or
by a distance of 20 feet.
9. Keep a fire extinguisher readily available.
10. Keep flammable liquids, that require cold storage in refrigerators.
SAFETY IN HANDLING OF FLAMMABLES AND HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
1. The workers should follow all established procedures and perform all jobs as they have trained.
2. Be cautious and plan ahead.
3. Make sure all containers are properly labelled and the material is contained in an appropriate
container.
4. Read labels and material safety data sheet(MSDS) before using any material.
5. Use all materials solely for their intended purpose.
6. Never drink or eat while handling any materials and if your hands are contaminated, don’t use
cosmetics or handle contact lenses.
7. Read the labels and refer to MSDS to identify properties and hazards of chemical products and
materials.
8. Store all the materials properly, separate incompatibles and store in ventilated,dry, cool areas.
9. Keep yourself and your work place clean. After handling any material, wash thoroughly with
soap and water.
10. learn about emergency procedures and equipment.
SAFETY IN STORAGE AND HANDLING OF AGGREGATES (IS 4082-1996)
1. Fine aggregate like sand and surkhi should be stacked in regular stacks on hard surface or
platform so as to prevent the admixture of clay, dust etc.
2. Coarse aggregates should be kept in stacks separately.
The aggregates should be carried out in regular stacks. The suggested sizes for stacks are given in IS
4082-1996.

8. ELECTRICAL SAFETY
1. Chose an equipment that is suitable in all working condition
2. Electrical risks can be eliminated by using hydraulic or hand powered tools
3. Make sure that equipments safe when supplied, and that is maintained in a safe condition
4. Provide an accessible and clearly identified switch near each fixed machine to cut off power in
emergency
5. For portable equipment use socket outlet which are close by so that equipment can be easily
disconnected in emergency
6. Replace damaged sections of cables completely
7. Use proper cables to joint length of cable ,do not use strip connectors
8. For double insulated equipments make sure that they are properly connected
9. Protect light bulbs and other equipments which could be easily damaged in use
10. In potentially flammable or explosive atmosphere only special electrical equipments designed for
these areas should be used
11. Equipment repairs , alterations to an electrical installation should carried out only people with
good knowledge
12. If working in electrical railways consult track operating company , some railways use electrified
rails than over head cables
13. Fluty equipment is taken out of use , labeled NOT USE” and kept secure
14. Equipment is switched off or unplugged before cleaning and making adjustments
15. Equipment repairs , alterations to an electrical installation should carried out only people with
good knowledge
16. If working in electrical railways consult track operating company , some railways use electrified
rails than over head cables
17. Fluty equipment is taken out of use , labeled NOT USE” and kept secure
18. Equipment is switched off or unplugged before cleaning and making adjustments
SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION WHILE USING LADDERS
Ladders
 A ladder is mainly used at work sites for
 Climbing
 Placing, removing or receiving materials
 Performing work

9. Who can use a ladder at work?
 To use a ladder, one should be instructed and thereby made to understand how to use the equipment
safely.
 Training can take place on the job.
 Check your ladder before using it
Before starting a task, you should always carry out a pre-use check to spot any obvious visual defects
A pre- use should be carried out by the user:
 At the beginning of the working day
 After something has changed
Check the stiles
 Make sure that they are not bent or damaged, as the ladder could buckle or collapse.
Check the feet
 If they are missing, worn or damaged the ladder could slip.
 Also check ladder feet when moving from soft/ dirty ground to a smooth, solid surface to make
sure the foot material and not the dirt is making contact with the ground
Check the rungs
 If they are bent, worn missing or loose the ladder could fail.
Check any locking mechanisms
 If they are bent or fixings are worn or damaged the ladder could collapse. Ensure any locking bars
are engaged
LEANING LADDERS:
 Don’t overload it
 Make sure the ladder angle is at 750
 Always grip the ladder and face the ladder rungs while climbing or descending
 Don’t work off the top three rungs
 Don’t stand ladders on moveable objects
 Avoid holding items when climbing.
 Maintain three points of contact when climbing
STEPLADDERS
 Check all four stepladder feet are in contact with the ground and the steps are level.
 Don’t overreach.
 Only carry light materials and tools.
 Don’t stand and work on the top three steps unless there is a suitable handhold.
 Try to avoid work that imposes a side loading such as side on drilling through solid materials.

10. The place of work where the ladder can be used
 On firm ground
 On level ground
 On clean, solid surfaces ( floors, paving etc)
 Where they will not be struck by vehicles.
 Where the general public are prevented from using it, walking underneath it or being at risk
because they are too near
SAFETY IN DEMOLITION OF BUILDINGS
1. In big cities before starting demolition work, permit will have to be obtained from proper authority
and it should be posted prominently at site.
2. If the structure to be demolished is damaged, then provide bracing and shoring to prevent
accidental collapse.
3. Proper barricading must be done all around the buildings to be demolished along with danger signs
and warning lights.
4. All water , gas, electricity lines must be shut off before the start of demolition work.
5. Unauthorised entry of public in danger zone should be prevented by a watchman
6. Diversion of pedestrians should be constructed if necessary for safety point of view.
7. Materials of fragile nature such as glass etc must be removed before the commencement of
demolition
8. All opening must be boarded up.
9. Stacking of debris should be within the safe limit
10. Adequate natural or artificial lighting, ventilation and dust control should be done at the demolition
site
11. Easy exit must be provided to arrange for quick evacuation of the workman if necessary
12. The demolition should always proceed systematically storey by storey in the descending order
13. Adequate hoisting arrangements must be made before removing truss, girder or beam
14. Walls should be removed part by part in reasonably level courses
15. Stages should be provided for the men to work on if the walls are less than one and a half brick
thick
16. If the walls are unsound, adequate lateral bracing should be provided.
17. Arches should be demolished by workmen standing on scaffolding clear of the arch
18. Adequate support centring should be provided prior to removal of floor
19. Planks of sufficient strength should be provided to give workmen firm support to guard against
any unexpected floor collapse
20. No person should be allowed to work in an area directly underneath when floors are being
removed
21. Catch platform of sufficient strength must be provided while demolishing exterior walls of multi
storey buildings so that injury may not be inflicted to workers below
22. Debris should not be dumped at the catch platform
23. Stairs, ladders etc should be left in place as long as possible and maintained in safe condition
24. Debris or any other material should not be dropped
25. It should be lowered either by container rope and tackle or chute

11. 26. Debris should be removed at the earliest to ensure safe and adequate working space
27. Debris should not be dumped at the catch platform
28. Stairs, ladders etc should be left in place as long as possible and maintained in safe condition
29. Debris or any other material should not be dropped
30. It should be lowered either by container rope and tackle or chute
31. Debris should be removed at the earliest to ensure safe and adequate working space
If demolition is to be done by mechanical devices such as weight ball, power shawls take the following
precautions;
 The area should be barricaded for a min distance one and half times the height of the wall
 When the mechanical device is in operation, no workman should be allowed to enter the building
being demolished
 The device should be so located so as to avoid damage by falling debris
 The mechanical device when being used should not cause any damage to adjacent structure,
electric line etc
 Normally no demolition work should be done in the night especially if the structure to be
demolished is located in an inhabited area
 Safety devices like steel helmets, safety belts, gloves etc should be provided according to
necessity
Following types of dangers exist in demolition works and all workers must take necessary precautions
a. Danger of falling
b. Falling while working on scaffolds
c. Insecure and unsound walls
d. Unregulated material chute
e. Wet and slippery surface
f. Improperly guarded ladders, platforms and scaffolds
g. Falling objects while working on lower levels
h. Injury from swinging loads
i. Collapse of a section of structure
j. Electrical lines
k. Explosives
SAFETY IN DEWATERING
1. You need the groundwater out of the way during your construction project.
2. Dewatering pumps are brought in to lower the groundwater table level only in the area of
excavation.
The water has to go somewhere
 Its always crucial to decide where the water gets moved.
 A poor decision will cause erosion or other types of damage.

12.  If the water is pumped to adjacent lakes or wetlands, you still have important concerns
Best practices
 Be aware of local and federal environmental protection regulations before you begin.
 They may require you to remove sediment from the water you extract.
 Avoid discharge the water onto slopes. Nothing causes erosion faster.
 If you are able to discharge water nearby, choose wooded buffer areas. They may have the best
ability to absorb and disperse it.
 Monitor both the area you are dewatering and the area where you are discharging the water. Stop
and investigate if either site shows signs of erosion.
 If you are moving water along a dewatering channel, you can stabilize it and reduce erosion by
protecting the channel with grass or other ground vegetation.
 Groundwater should be tested for contaminates and overall quality.
 Large areas of standing water in open pits should be tested to make sure they don’t contain oil or
chemicals.
 The untreated water can never be discharged without first being treated.
SAFETY IN PILING
In specifying the use of piles the designer should be aware of and assess the risks from the principal
hazards.
Some possible hazards and risks
 Health hazards such as contact with contaminated risings or groundwater and contact with
hazardous materials or dusts
 Noise, vibration
 Contact with plant or machinery during lifting, slewing, pitching of piling elements, the
movement of piling rigs etc.
 Plant instability caused by gradients, variable ground conditions or inadequate bearing capacity.
 Collapse of excavations, nearby structures etc.
Considerations
 The stability of the surrounding structures is a prime consideration. The method of piling used
may well be influenced by this
 All underground services should be located and made safe. A careful investigation should be
undertaken to ensure that no underground water courses, or ground conditions which could lead
to hazardous situations.
 All workers on the operation should be trained in the particular method statement to be used.
 All cranes, lifting appliances and lifting gear must have appropriate test certificates proving
periodic statutory examination.
 Such equipment should be placed on a firm level base
 Consideration should be given to the risk of damage to lifting gear from sharp edges.
 Persons associated with the operation should wear the appropriate protective clothing and the
equipment such as hard hats, eye and hearing protection

13. Issues to be considered
 Ground conditions
 Identified buried features including cables and pipelines
 Stability of adjacent structures, both their foundations and superstructures
SAFETY IN EXCAVATION
1. Keep heavy equipments away from trenches.
2. Keep surcharge loads at least 2 feet away from trench edges.
3. Know where underground utilities are located.
4. Test for low oxygen and hazardous gases.
5. Inspect trenches at the start of each shift.
6. Do not work under raised loads.
7. Inspect trenches after rainfall.
There are different types of protective systems.
 Designing can be complex as you have to consider factors:
 Soil classification
 Depth of excavation
 Water content
 Surcharge loads
 Climatic conditions
a) Sloping involves cutting back the soil inclined away from excavation.
b) Shoring involves installing aluminium hydraulics or other types of support to prevent soil
movement.
c) Shielding protects workers using supports to prevent soil from caving in.
Competent person
 An individual who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards or working
conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or dangerous to employees.
 Authorized to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards and
conditions.
 Trenches be inspected daily and as conditions change by a competent person prior to worker
entry to ensure elimination of excavation hazards.
Access and egress
 Requires safe access and egress to all excavations, including ladders, steps, ramps, or other safe
means of exit for employees working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or deeper.
 Devices must be located within 25 feet (7.6 meters) of all workers.

14. Protect yourself
 Do not enter an unprotected trench.
 Trenches 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep or greater require a protective system unless the excavation is
made entirely in stable rock.
 Trenches 20 feet (6.1 meters) deep or greater require that the protective system be de-signed by a
registered professional engineer or be based on tabulated data prepared and/ or approved by a
registered professional engineer.
Dangers of trenching and excavation
 Cave-ins pose the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation related accidents
to result in worker fatalities.
 Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and incidents
involving mobile equipment
ROCK BLASTING
1. It’s the controlled use of explosive and other methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics,
to break rock for excavation.
2. It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam or road
construction. The result of rock blasting is often known as a rock cut.
3. Utilizes many different varieties of explosives with different compositions and performance
properties.
4. Higher velocity explosives are used for relatively hard rock in order to shatter and break the rock,
while low velocity explosives are used in soft rocks to generate more gas pressure and a greater
heaving effect.
5. For instance, an early 20th-century blasting manual compared the effects of black powder to that
of a wedge, and dynamite to that of a hammer. The most commonly used explosives in mining
today are ANFO based blends due to lower cost than dynamite.
PROCEDURE
1. A number of holes are drilled into the rock, which are then filled with explosives.
2. Detonating the explosive causes the rock to collapse.
3. Rubble is removed and the new tunnel surface is reinforced.
4. Repeating these steps until desired excavation is complete.
5. The positions and depths of the holes (and the amount of explosive each hole receives) are
determined by a carefully constructed pattern, which, together with the correct timing of the
individual explosions, will guarantee that the tunnel will have an approximately circular cross-
section.
6. During operation, blasting mats may be used to contain the blast, suppress dust and noise, for fly
rock prevention and sometimes to direct the blast.

15. DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF FIRE RSISTANT WALLS
FIRE RESISTANCE:
Fire resistance is a property of an element of building construction and is the measure of its ability to
satisfy for a stated period, some or all of the following criteria:
 Resistance to collapse,
 Resistance to penetration of flame and hot gases and
 Resistance to temperature rise on the unexposed face upto a maximum of 180°C and/or average
temperature of 150°C.
FIRE RESISTANT WALLS:
Definition:
 It is a fire resistance rated wall, having protected openings, which restricts the spread of fire and
extends continuously from the foundation to at least 1m above the roof.
General:
 The design and type of materials determines the fire resistivity of a building element.
 Fire resistance is expressed in hours against a specified fire load expressed in kcal/m² and against
a certain intensity of fire.
Aims in fire safety design
 To prevent fire.
 To safeguard the lives of occupants and fire fighters.
 To reduce damage on the building, its contents and on surrounding buildings.
Basic principles
 Fire avoidance
 Fire detection
 Fire growth restriction
 Fire containment
 Fire control
 Smoke control
 Escape provisions
Choice of material and material perfomance
1. CONCRETE
 High Fire resistance
 Disintegrates at 400 – 500°C
 Holes in concrete walls will expose steel structural members

16. 2. STEEL
 Does not burn.
 may buckle in fire.
 High conductivity spreads heat
 Losses half its strength in 550°C
3. TIMBER
 Combustible
 Little loss of strength as charcoal formed insulates wood core.
 Spreads flames.
4. MASONRY
 High fire resistance.
 Crack at 575°C
 Are subjected to high temperature during manufacture.
5. CALCIUM SILICATE
 Excellent thermal shock resistant upto 1000°C
 Suitable for cladding structural members.
6. GLASS
 Standard float, toughened and laminated glass panels do not provide any fire resistance.
CONSTRUCTION
 No wood frame is impervious to fire damage.
 Using the right material and techniques add precious minute to the amount of time the wall can
withstand fire.
 Keeping the wall material intact for as long as possible is the effective way to increase fire
resistance.
Fire resistant wall board
 It helps protect the interior wooden structures of the wall from damage.
 Gypsum fire board designed specifically to be fire resistant incorporates chemical additives and
glass fibers that make the board more dimensionally stable when exposed to high heat.

17.  Fire resistant wall board is thicker than standard wallboard and the extra thickness lessens the
transfer of heat through the board.
Wallboard attachment
 Fastening the wallboard to studs via metal channels rather than screwing it directly to studs also
help wallboard to remain in place longer during fire.
 The wallboard is not attached directly to the studs, any movement in the studs caused by fire is
not transmitted directly to wallboard, and the board is less likely to pull away from fasteners
holding it on the wall.
Shear wall construction
 A Shear wall is a wall that is designed to withstand lateral forces applied to the wall.
 Shear walls are constructed with plywood attatched over studs to supply lateral support which
adds to the fire resistance.
 A wall constructed with wallboard over plywood provides to mins more fire resistance than a
wall constructed with wallboard alone.
Applications
 Can be used to subdivide a building into separate fire areas and reconstructed in accordance with
locally applicable building codes.
 Can be used to separate high value transformers at electrical substation in the event of a mineral
oil tank rupture and ignition.
REQUIREMENTS OTHER THAN GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGS OF
DIFFERENT OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATION
1. Grading of building according to fire resistance & structural precautions
a) Structural precautions gives a building necessary resistance to
◦ Complete burn out
◦ Restrict spread of fire
◦ Minimise personal hazard
b) For each type of building fire resistance requirements for the different structural elements are
shown in the following table:
Grade No. Time in hours-minimum
resistance against standard fire
Fire load in kcl/m2
Class of fire
1 6 1 100 000 and over Very high
2 4 500000 to 1100000 High
3 2 275000 to 550000 Medium
4 1 Less than 275000 Low
5 .5 Very low

18. 2. Escape Routes: Concept
 Ample provisions for escape of the population of building during fire should be provided.
 All routes should be constructed such that the population reaches safety within short period of time
and without hindrance of smoke, fumes, etc.
3. Compartmentation of building
The aim of compartmentation is to contain the fire within the building to minimum possible area.
Types of compartmentation :
 Partitioning of buildings by fire resistant walls designed to stop a fire spreading.
 Compartmentation of buildings with a particularly high risk of fire.
 Permanent protection of exit routes in the building against penetration by fire.
 Compartmentation of ducting and air space linking several different areas of the building.
4.Compartment Walls
 Where there are walls there must be means of access through them, doors are provided for this
purpose.
 The primary aim of a fire door is to confine an outbreak to the smallest possible area, and minimize
damage.
 It is vitally important to close wall openings and shut off lift shafts, stairways and corridors to
prevent fire spreading.
 An effective fire door must be able to resist the intense heat of fire applied to one side without
distorting.
5.Compartmentation of floors
1. Staircases, Lifts and Escalators
 Openings to accommodate vertical transportation means provides a vertical shaft which can be
means of passage for fire between one storey and the other.
 It is vitally important to ensure the top and bottom of shaft is also fire resistant and any access
ways are fully protected.
 Escalators present a special problem and whilst it is possible to contain them within a shaft
enclosure, this does not often commend to the building designer.
 An alternative method is to provide a shutter to enclose the top of the escalator.
2. Holes and Pipes
 Where pipes are contained with a shaft of adequate fire resistance, the problem of maintaining
the integrity of fire compartment is comparatively simple.
CONFINED SPACE
DEFINITION:-
 Confined space is any area that is not intended for human occupancy and that also has the potential
for containing a dangerous atmosphere.

19.  It can be any space of an enclosed nature where there is a risk of death or serious injury from
hazardous substances or dangerous conditions (eg lack of oxygen).
Some confined spaces are fairly easy to identify, eg enclosures with limited openings;
 storage tanks
 silos
 reaction vessels
 enclosed drains
 sewers
Others may be less obvious, but can be equally dangerous, for example:
 open-topped chambers
 vats
 combustion chambers in furnaces etc
 ductwork
 unventilated or poorly ventilated rooms.
 The use of LPG appliances and petrol or diesel engines can lead to the build-up of poisonous
carbon monoxide gas.
 Manholes, tunnels, trenches set in chalk soil,which can partly fill with carbon dioxide
gas,displacing breathable air.
 In manholes, pits or trenches connected to sewers, there can be a build-up of flammable or
poisonous gases or insufficient oxygen in the air.
 Sludges and other residues in tanks or pits may hazardous.
 Rusting metal work and other natural oxidation processes may lead to an oxygen-deficient
atmosphere inside the space.
INCIDENT RATE
 Incident rates are an indication of how many incidents have occurred, or how severe they were.
They are measurements only of past performance or lagging indicators.
 It tend to be viewed as an indication of something that is wrong with a safety system
 In spite of this, for many companies, incident rates remain the primary indicator of safety
performance measurement
Types of Incident rates
 Recordable incident rate
 Total incident rate
 Severity rate
 Lost workday rate

20. RECORDABLE INCIDENTS
 Recordable incidents include all work related deaths,illnesses, and injuries which result in a
loss of consciousness, restriction of work or motion, permanent transfer to another job within
the company, or that require some type of medical treatment or first-aid.
SEVERITY RATE
 a mathematical calculation that describes the number of lost days experienced as compared to
the number of incidents experienced.
TOTAL INCIDENT RATE
 a mathematical calculation that describes the number of recordable incident that a company
experiences per 100 full-time employees in any given time frame
LOST WORKDAY RATE
 a mathematical calculation that describes the number of lost work days per 100 full-time
employees in any given time frame.
REPAIR TECHNIQUES OF FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE SLAB , BEAM&THE STEEL
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
CONCRETE REPAIR PROCESS
1) Seeing an EFFECT
2) Determining the CAUSE
3) Deciding whether the problem needs to be repaired
4) Conducting some form of condition survey to quantify problems
5) Dealing with repair analysis and engineering issues in the repair
6) Determine repair strategies that includes methods, techniques and repair materials
7) Finally, accomplishing the repair
REPAIR CLASSIFICATION
 Surface repair : Removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete
 Strengthening : Strengthen or enhance capacity of a structural member
 Stabilization : Halting unwanted condition like cracking or settlement
 Water-proofing : Stops fluid from entering or exiting concrete structure
 Protection : Protect concrete from aggressive environment

21. Concrete Repair: ‘Methods’ and ‘Materials’
Defects Repair Methods Materials
Live Cracks • Pressure injection with
flexible filler
Jacketing:
Strapping
Overlaying
• Strengthening
• Flexible epoxy
• Steel wire or rod
• Special mortar
• Steel plate
• Post tensioning
• Stitching
Dormant
Cracks
• Coating
• Overlying
• Grinding and Overlay
• Dry-pack
• Shotcrete
• Patching
• Jacketing
• Strengthening
• Reconstruction
• Cement grout or mortar,
Fast-setting mortar.
• Rigid epoxy
• Bituminous coating, tar
• Asphalt overlay with
membrane
• Latex modified concrete,
highly dense concrete
• Dry-pack
• Mortar (cement), Fast-
setting mortar
• Cement mortar, Epoxy or
Polymer concrete
• Steel rod
• Post tensioning
• Voids
• Hollows and
• Honeycombs
• Dry pack
• Patching
• Resurfacing
• Shotcrete
• Aggregate
• Replacement
• Dry-pack
• Portland cement grout,
mortar, cement
• Epoxy or Polymer concrete
• Fast-setting mortar
• Coarse aggregate and grout
• as needed
• Scaling Damage • Overlaying
• Grinding
• Shotcrete
• Coating
• Replacement
• Portland cement concrete,
Latex modified concrete,
• Asphalt cement, Epoxy or
polymer concrete
• Fast-setting mortar,
Cement mortar
• Bituminous, Linseed oil
coat, Silane treatment
• as needed
• Spalling Damage • Patching
• Shotcrete
• Overlay
• Coating
• Replacement
• Concrete, Epoxy, Polymer,
Latex, Asphalt
• Cement mortar, Fast-
setting mortar
• Latex modified concrete,
Asphalt concrete, Concrete
• Bituminous, linseed oil,
Silane, etc.

22. 1.JACKETING
 Jacketing is the most popularly used methods for strengthening of building columns .
 The main purpose of jacketing are are ,
To increase concrete confinement.
To increase flexural strength.
To increase shear strength .
 It is the process where original dimension of the existing structural member is restored.
 The size increased by the encasement using suitable materials
 A steel reinforcement cage can be constructed around the damaged section onto which shotcrete
or cast-in-place concrete is placed
 The form of jacket consist of timber, corrugated metal,
 Precast concrete, rubber etc
 Void between form and member can be filled by pumping, preplaced aggregate concrete
 Material such as epoxy mortar, grout, latex modified mortar and concrete used as encasement
material
 The advantages of jacketing are;
1. Increasing axial strength
2. Increasing bending strength
3. Increasing stiffness
2.FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER
 The system consist of fibers, typically carbon or glass, which primarily carry the loads.
 Due to its properties the FRP used as a repair material.
 The epoxy resin system which transfers the shear loads amongst the fibers, protect them .
 FRP plates and thin sheets are commonly practiced.
 This method improves compressive as well as flexural strength.
3.PARTIAL REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCEMENT
 Define the repair boundaries area.
 The damaged concrete is replaced by some suitable mean such as hydro blasting or jack hammer
up to the depth of damage.
 Then remove the damaged reinforcement bar.
 overlapping or welding are adopted for replacing reinforcement bars.
 Concrete is replaced by in-situ casting with the help of form work.
STEEL
 Steel members which have slight distortion may be made dimensionally reusable by simple
straightening methods
 The members may be put to continued use with full expectancy of performance with its specified
mechanical properties .
 The members which have become unusable due to excessive deformation may simply be scrapped
.Its easy to retrofit steel structure after fire .