Decision-Making and Historical Events: Thinking through Content-Centered Learning
1. Decision-Making and Historical
Events: Thinking Through Content-
Centered Learning
Dr. Jeffrey Byford
Professor, Social Studies Education
The University of Memphis
Dr. Brian Horn
Associate Professor, Social Studies Education
Oklahoma Baptist University
2. The Second Generation of
Decision-Making: Robert Stahl
In 1978, Robert Stahl created a new version of decision-making.
It was called content-centered learning.
He evaluated issues associated with “drill and grill” “fact
learning” and “think for yourself vs. the lecture syndrome”
Rather than repeat the failures of previous projects, Stahl
developed decision-making curriculum based on four phases of
thinking:
Conceptual Thinking
Relational Thinking
Valuation Thinking
Decisional Thinking
3. Conceptual = student’s focus on clarifying, comprehending and
interpreting information provided.
Relational = students begin to link information found in the
situation and that of the unit or information studied in class.
Valuation = students begin to personalize the event and explore
possible variables and solutions to the dilemma(s).
Decisional = students take into consideration all of the
elements presented to solve or justify an issue. Students reach a
decision and make a commitment to the course of action.
4. Content-Centered comes in a variety of formats to include:
Rank Order (priority of alternatives relative to one another)
Forced Choice (required to select from a limited number of
alternatives)
Negotiation (divide options into most and least desirable)
Invention (free to make any decision within the context of the
problem)
Exploration (encompasses Conceptual, Relational, Decisional and
Affective thinking in an effort to solve or explore a given
historical topic)
5. Rank Order Example: Escape
from East Berlin
Relation to the Textbook
This Rank-Order lesson is designed to complement materials
dealing with the Cold War and American foreign policy in the late
1950s and 1960s in an effort to contain communism. This lesson
dealing with the Berlin Wall provides students with a glimpse of
the realities associated with the oppression of communism in
Eastern Europe. This lesson also provides students with
examples of actual escape methods used by East Berliners in an
attempt to escape communist East Germany. While hundreds of
East Germans attempted to escape, the reality was that only a
few succeeded. As with any decision-based lesson, it is important
to remember there is no right or wrong response. Rather, it is
hoped to stimulate discussion on the subject in relation with
material covered from the textbook and class.
6. Students are given a Dilemma
Your Dilemma: The date is 15 May, 1964. You, along with your friends are citizens in
the German Democratic Republic (Communist East Germany). However, there is nothing
“democratic” about the oppressive, communist government. Since your country’s birth in
1948 from Russian occupation, your government has become increasing paranoid about its
labor force leaving for the West. The Berlin Wall has significantly reduced or stopped your
fellow East Germans from traveling to West Berlin. The East German secret police (Stasi)
are ruthless in both spying on the citizens of East Germany, but also in how they “obtain”
information. Stasi infiltration into every aspect of East German life is guaranteed.
The communist “planned economy” in which you live, are marginal at best compared to
your fellow Germans living in West Berlin. Often, when you and your friends walk beside
the fortified wall separating the two cities, you can hear and see the fast-paced lifestyles of
West Berlin. This, sense of freedom, along with recent arrests of several friends by the
Stasi, has only fueled your desires to escape to a better life. With this desire also comes
fear. Since the wall’s initial construction in 1961, over thirty East Germans have died
trying to escape. It has been rumored that some have escaped, while others who are
caught, simply disappear. Successfully escaping is a good thing, but it will come with
consequences. When and if you and your friends escape to West Berlin, the Stasi and
other government officials will act swiftly when you fail to report to your assigned jobs the
following day. Most likely your family will be arrested, along with friends not directly
associated with your escape. Later that evening, you and your friends sit down in your
apartment to discuss possible escape scenarios.
7. Students are given options
Possible Choices: Which of the following escape plans does your group believe are the most realistic and least realistic in an effort to escape to
West Berlin?
Option A: With scrap metal and a motorcycle engine, build a small ultra-light style aircraft. Practice will not be possible, so mark your aircraft with
Russian markings. It is believed a GDR border guard will not fire upon a Soviet aircraft.
Option B: Using sewage access cover (manholes), you could attempt to escape through the elaborate sewage system that connects West Berlin. At
designated “choke” points throughout the sewage system are welded bars similar to those found in prisons.
Option C: Build a hot air balloon from scrap parts and by piecing together bits of nylon and bed sheets to make a frighteningly fragile escape. Gas
burners from your apartments will act as engines.
Option D: Steal a Russian built, East German armored vehicle and drive it into the wall.
Option E: Drive a stolen delivery truck at full speed into wall fortifications, and then attempt to climb electric fence using deflated rubber inner
tubes.
Option F: Use an inflatable mattress and attempt to swim one of the canals or rivers at night in an attempt to avoid East German patrols.
Option G: Attempt to gather materials and make (as close as possible) East German Border Guard uniforms. Making correct identification papers
will be almost impossible. Take a GDR soldier hostage and attempt to escape through one of the eight checkpoints with West Berlin.
Option H: Steal a state owned bus, and attempt to smash it into wall fortifications, and then attempt to climb electric fence using deflated rubber
inner tubes.
Option I: Dig a tunnel to escape. Water tables (amount of water found in the soil) is generally high. Because of this, GDR border guards
sporadically check buildings and ground for tunneling activities.
Option J: Other – develop your own plan of escape.
8. Students must Prioritize Alternatives
Assigned Rank Type of Option
Given
Potential Positive
Factor(s)
Potential Negative
Factor(s)
A: Glider
B: Sewage Escape
C: Hot Air Balloon
D: Armored Vehicle
E: Delivery Truck
F: Inflatable
Mattress
G: Hostage Situation
H: Bus
I: Tunnel
J: Other
9. Rank Order Example: The
Dilemma of the Divided City
Relation to the Textbook
This Rank-Order lesson is designed to complement
materials dealing with the Cold War and American
foreign policy in the late 1950s and 1960s in an effort
to contain communism. This lesson dealing with the
dilemma encountered by the East German
government and the solutions to a population drain
to West Berlin. All choices are historically accurate
and provides students with a glimpse of the realities
associated with the oppression of communism in
Eastern Europe. Rather, it is hoped to stimulate
discussion on the subject in relation with material
covered from the textbook and class.
10. Students are Given a DilemmaDate: Tuesday, 8 August 1961
Situation: Perched on the twelfth floor of the city administration building, you look out onto a dirty,
economically stressed city. As the mayor of a city of 1,000,000 residents, you have been tasked to push
economic life back into a once proud, vibrant cultural center. However, this will not be an easy task. For the
past sixteen years, your city has been divided down the middle both politically and economically. The other
(West) side of the city has 1,200,000 residents and is not considered to be a part of your country. In the west
side of the city businesses flourish, and the arts and social events contribute to a high quality of life and
salaries. In your city (the East side), government control, regulation, and limited growth has stalled any
chance of an economic recovery. While you wish to engage in limited reforms, your country remains firmly in
control. The national government has a strict regulation on most production, healthcare, media and
education. Free enterprise is discouraged.
Over the years, government officials have indicated a growing alarm in this economic situation. It is
estimated that between 50,000 to 100,000 of your city’s highly skilled residents cross the invisible border
daily to work on the Western side of the city. In your eyes, this means lost revenue in taxes. Also, your
citizens, who travel daily to the other side of the city, still use your country’s free healthcare and education
system, which costs your city around one billion dollars a year. As a result, your city and country daily lose
large amounts of skilled labor (technicians, doctors, teachers, etc.), creating a shortage of demanding jobs.
Your government has estimated that over the last ten years, nearly 1.6 million citizens have only walked
across the street to the Western side of the city never to return.
Local members of your city government have indicated that drastic times result in drastic measures. You are
under a lot of pressure to solve this “bleeding economic” issue. As you meet with government officials, you
review the facts:
- Your city / country cannot compete on the same economic scale as the Western sector of the city.
- Your country has strict regulations on production and distribution of goods which is different from
the Western sector of the city. Such a contrast has caused enormous problems with your citizens and
government.
- A significant number of your city’s citizens receive higher salaries in the Western side of the city.
- Workers leave on a daily basis to work on the other side of the city and never return.
- Your healthcare, education, and social programs are on the verge of bankruptcy due to the loss of tax
revenue.
- Your country had experienced recent food shortages and failed crops and harvests.
- You currently have a high rate of unemployment and lack of skilled labor in your side of the city.
- A citizen on your side of the city can make up to 3 times the salary in the Western side.
- You currently spend one billion dollars a year on healthcare and education on citizens who work in
the other city but live in your country.
- Your government is UNWILLING to change their controlled economy to that of the Western side of
the city.
11. Students are given options
Option A: Your government attempts to change the shared currency with the Western side of the city to
create a “foreign country” effect with your economically powerful neighbor making Western “goods”
expensive.
Option B: Make deep economic cuts in several national (government supported) programs throughout the
country. Monies saved from such financial cuts will be given to your city in the effort to build parks, schools,
and entertainment in the attempt to attract citizens.
Option C: Document and carefully monitor all citizens leaving to work and shop on the Western side of the
city. Additional taxes and fees will be applied to offset your country’s free healthcare, education, and
affordable housing.
Option D: Individual’s in your city who work on the Western side of the city will not receive special
considerations for preferred apartments, and going to college.
Option E: Only allow dedicated and loyal citizens access to study at the university level. Such loyalty to your
government’s belief will aide in the effort to keep highly skilled workers in your country.
Option F: Build a larger police force in your city to “protect” your citizens from leaving your city and losing
needed income.
Option G: Build a series of fences along the invisible border. Doing so will guarantee the stop of your citizens
leaving your city, the loss of demanding jobs, and stabilize your money.
12. Students must Prioritize
AlternativesAssigned Rank of Most Acceptable
Response or Action Taken
Example: 1, 2, 3, etc.
Type of Option Given Potential Positive Factor(s) of
Response or Action
Possible negative Factor(s) of
Response or Action
A: Change of Currency
B: Economic Cuts
C: Monitor and Taxation
D: Lack of Privileges
E: Loyalty to Government
F: Police Protection Force
G: Fences
