A presentation of descriptive analysis of the vernacular architecture of cold and dry regions of India and abroad.

1. VERNACULAR
ARCHITECTURE
COLD AND DRY REGION
SUBMITTED TO
AR. SATWINDER KAUR
AR. VASUDHA SOOD
SUBMITTED BY
19014 DIPAYAN DAS
19029 MONAMI KAKOTI
19032 NISHA KANDARI
19049 TSERING YANGCHEN

2. CONTENT
• INDIAN STATES
• FOREIGN COUNTRIES
LADAKH
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
UTTARAKHAND
TIBET
NORWAY
SWEDEN

3. INDIAN STATES

4. LADAKH

5. LOCATION
Ladakh is the highest plateau in India with most of it being over
3,000 m (9,800 ft)
Climate: cold and dry
SUMMER
During day: 17-24 C
During night: 4-11 C
WINTER
During day: 7-9 C
During night: -14 - 0
• The rainfall in this region is as low as 10 cm annually. This is
because it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas.
• Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where
a stunted growth of tamarisk (genus Tamarix) shrubs, furze
(also called gorse; spiny plants of the legume family), and
other plants supply much-needed firewood.
• The principal products are wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat,
peas, beans, and turnips. Woolen cloth and other textiles
are the primary manufactures.

6. OCCUPATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC
• The economy of Ladakh is mainly agricultural. Most of the
people earn their livelihood by growing barley, wheat and
peas. Keeping livestock, especially yak, cows, dzos, sheep
and goats. the people of Ladakh are also engaged in
business, trading in textiles, carpets, dyestuffs and narcotics
between Punjab and Xinjiang, tourism industry and
government jobs. DEMOGRAPHICS
• Leh, Ladakh population- 150,371
• State- 13,338,542
• The major races found here are the Tibetans, Mons and the
Dards.
• the predominant religions in the region are Buddhism,
Christianity and Islam.
• The Buddhists and Muslims comprise the majority,
concentrated in the north and east and to the south
respectively the Christians form a smaller minority.
• women works not only at home but also works outside the
home and they are free to interact with the men outside
their home. Traditional dresses "Goucha“ and "Kuntop"

7. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN LADAKH
• Architecture of Ladakh exhibits a strong Buddhist influence.
• The architecture of Ladakh has been determined by the physical terrain of the place as well as the major religious
following
• Traditional buildings in Ladakh, like those in Tibet, are made of stones, timbers, and mud in various forms, such as sun-
dried mud bricks and rammed earth for floor and roof plastering. The structures reflect the people's way of life, with
cow pens on the ground floor and Buddhist altar chambers on the top
• DESIGN CRITERIA AND FEATURES OBJECTIVE
• Resist heat loss
• Decrease exposed surface area
• Increase thermal resistance
• Increase thermal capacity(time lag)
• Increase buffer spaces
• Decrees air exchange rate
• Increase surface absorptivity
Promote heat gain
• Reduce shading
• Utilize heat from appliances
• Trapping heat
PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION
• Orientation and shape of building.
• Use of trees as wind barriers o Roof insulation, wall
insulation and double glazing
• Thicker walls
• Air locks/lobbies
• Weather stripping
• Darker colors
• Walls and glass surfaces
• Sun spaces/green houses/trombe walls etc. House in ladakh
Double glazed glass Trombe wall Thermal insulation in
trombe wall

8. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN LADAKH-HISTORY
ARCHITECTURE SPATIAL LAYOUT
• Mostly the building are 2 storied
• Large houses have courtyards while small houses do not have
• the ground floor is usually a dwarf storey for keeping livestock, storage purposes and also to
collect waste
• Upper storey is used for living purposes usually consists of prayer room, store, toilet and a large
room combining function of drawing, kitchen, bedroom
• The timber post is characteristic of architecture of ladakh
• The main living room has a large window facing sun Ground floor plan First floor plan South slope
Leh, ladakh House in leh

11. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN LADAKH- principles
Every house is different even if some basic criteria are generally followed for functional reasons. Houses can vary a lot
according to their site, owners and particular circumstances at the time of their construction or renovation. Differences can
be seen on a macroscopic level, while subtler diversities appear only when one looks closer into the dwelling. There are no
strict rules and exceptions are always possible. These basic principles are as follows:
Orientation
The orientation of a house follows some practical rules and in some cases these correspond to astrological considerations
and religious aspects as well. The main façade, the one provided with larger openings, is south oriented to better catch the
sun radiation and the direct light. The entrance is often located on the east not only because of religious prescriptions. The
practical reason for not having openings on the north or west, but rather on the east, is to stop the cold winds and to avoid
heat dispersion
Plan Scheme and Dimensioning
The house does not always have a regular shape, since it is generally adapted to the terrain. The family can add new rooms
or build up a new storey if needed. In most cases buildings were not built according to a pre-established design and the
family decided everything with the master mason, the rtsikspon, at the beginning of the construction process.
Dimension, Shape and Height of Rooms
Rooms are generally quite small, apart from the main fireplace room where most of the activities are carried out and
people hosted. The dimensions of the rooms are decided according to the number of people to be hosted or the materials
to be stored. Since it is difficult to find rafters that can cover a wide area without bending, masons lay a system of columns,
primary and secondary beams to form a grid in-side larger rooms. In general rooms have a rectangular shape and in some
cases, when buildings are adapted to a hillside, some of the walls can be irregular.

13. MATERIAL AND TECHNIQES
• Primary building material is earth and timber available locally which offer climatic comfort in wide diurnal range of
Ladakh
• Quartzite stone is used only in the partial construction of forts and palaces especially the lower storeys to impart
additional strength and provide protection from water.
• Sundried earth blocks(alluvial soil) are the primary unit of masonry construction.
• Roofs are constructed in flat spans by using trunk of the local poplar tree as beams placed about 50-60cm apart. The
diameter of the trunks is 15cm o A 15 to 20cm layer of drygrass, hay etc. is spread over the layer of willows and finally
finished with plaster of clayey mud
• Floors of lower storey on the ground are made of mud while the upper storey in timber
• The lintels of the doors and windows are corbelled features with ornamentation.
• The sills and jambs are articulated by the plaster band often coloured in Red or Black. These timber lintels and plaster
bands are the distinguishable features of the Ladakhi Architecture Construction of roof mud bricks Timber lintel Mud
plaster to improve insulation

14. BEAM PILLER SYSTEM

15. DOOR AND WINDOW

16. JAMMU AND KASHMIR
• Jammu and Kashmir is home to several valleys such as
the Kashmir Valley, Tawi Valley, Chenab
Valley, Poonch Valley, Sind Valley, and Lidder Valley. The
Kashmir valley is 100 km (62 mi) wide and
15,520.3 km2 (5,992.4 sq mi) in area.
• Vernacular architecture in Kashmir factored in both the
cold and hot climate of the Valley, making homes climate
resilient and less vulnerable to earthquakes. The old
houses of the Kashmir Valley are living examples of
climate-resilient and sustainable architecture.
Highest elevation (Nun Peak) 7,135 m (23,409 ft)
Lowest elevation (Chenab
River)
247 m (810 ft)
GEOGRAPHY

17. CLIMATE OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR
• The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies with altitude and across regions. Southern and southwestern
areas have a sub tropical climate, with hot summers and cool winters. This region receives most of its rainfall
during the monsoon season. In the east and north, summers are usually pleasant. The effect of the monsoon
diminishes in areas lying to the leeward side of the Pir Panjal, such as the Kashmir valley, and much of the
rainfall happens in the spring season due to western disturbances. Winters are cold, with temperatures
reaching sub-zero levels. Snowfall is common in the valley and the mountain areas.

18. VERNACULAR MATERIALS OF J & K
1.Wood: Wood is a fundamental material in the construction of traditional houses in Jammu and Kashmir. The
use of timber, often sourced from the region's forests, is common for the structural framework of buildings,
including columns, beams, and roof trusses.
2.Stone: The region has abundant natural stone resources, and stone masonry is widely used for constructing
walls, foundations, and pathways. Local stone varieties, such as slate, limestone, and sandstone, are
commonly employed.
3.Mud and Adobe: Mud and adobe construction techniques are prevalent, especially in rural areas. Mud
bricks or adobe blocks are made from a mixture of mud, straw, and sometimes, dung. These materials are
used for building walls that offer good thermal insulation.
4.Thatch: Thatch roofing is used in some parts of Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in the rural areas. Grass,
straw, or reeds are commonly used for thatching roofs, which helps insulate against both cold and heat.
5.Slate Roofing : In the hilly areas of the region, slate roofing is a common practice. The flat and durable slate
stones are used to cover roofs, providing protection from rain and snow.
6.Clay Tiles: In some regions, clay tiles are used for roofing. These tiles are known for their durability and
insulating properties.
7.Bamboo and Wicker: In some traditional buildings, especially in the valleys, bamboo and wicker are used
for constructing walls, partitions, and fences. These materials are flexible and easily accessible.

19. 8. Lime Plaster: Lime plaster is used for coating walls and providing a smooth and protective finish. It is
also employed for decorative purposes in some cases.
9. Gypsum: Gypsum plaster is used for interior wall finishes and decorative elements. It is especially
common in Kashmiri architecture.
10.Pine Needles and Tree Bark: Pine needles and tree bark are sometimes used for thatching roofs in
remote areas of Jammu and Kashmir. This eco-friendly technique is well-suited for the hilly terrain.
11.Walnut Wood: Walnut wood, with its rich color and attractive grain patterns, is often used for crafting
intricate furniture and decorative elements in traditional Kashmiri homes.
12.Glass and Shikara Windows: Stained glass and intricately designed wooden window frames, known as
Shikara windows, are common architectural elements in Kashmiri houses, adding to the aesthetic
beauty.

20. Shikara Windows
Mud and Adobe Bamboo and Wicker
Slate Roofing
Walnut Wood curving

21. VERNACULAR CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
1 . TAQ CONSTRUCTION :
• In this system of construction 2-3 ft. thick
brick masonry piers supporting wooden
floor beams formed the basic structural
system of the building.
• The distance between two brick piers
used to be normally around 3-4 ft and
was known as a TAQ.
• The gap in between each TAQ would be
filled in with either a window opening or
brick masonry.
• The roof comprised a layer of earth
covering over birchbark and wooden
planks resting on wooden rafters.

22. 2 . DHAJJI-DEWARI CONSTRUCTION:
• The term dhajji dewari is thought to be derived from a
Persian word meaning “patchwork quilt wall”.
• The dhajji-dewari construction is based on a braced
timber framed structural system, in which normally 4-9
inch thick brick or stone masonry is used to infill the
gaps.
• Normally this system is limited to upper floor levels or
attics ( kani ) of the building
• Timber bracings used in upper floors , ground floor is
made of just stone masonary.

23. SPATIAL ORGANISATION ANDPLANNING
• Lattice work screens and window shutters,
profusely carved wooden brackets, eaves
board (morakh patt), pendants (dour) are
some of the main architectural elements
associated with them.
• Many of the traditional buildings are based on
a square plan with the main entrance opening
into acentrally located staircase lobby.
• The lobby is flanked by one or two rooms on
either side, inground as well as first floor.
• The space above entrance in first floor in
some cases also encloses a projecting wooden
bay window(dub).
• The second floor (kani) normally comprises a
single large hall which can be subdivided into
three smaller rooms whenever required with
the help of partition screens.

24. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

25. UTTARAKHAND
• Country: India
• Capital: Dehradun
• TOTAL AREA: 53,483 km2
• Highest elevation: 7817 m (Nanda Devi)
• Lowest elevation: 190m
• Uttarakhand has a highly
varied topography, with snow-covered
peaks, glaciers, deep canyons, roaring
streams, beautiful lakes, and a few
patches of dusty plains in the south.
• The climate of Uttarakhand is
temperate, marked by seasonal
variations in temperature but also
affected by tropical monsoons.

26. GENERAL FEATURES
• Settlements are built in long linear pattern to allow
maximum sun.
• Buildings are placed along the contours in the stepped
terraces allowing minimum disturbance to terrain.
• Materials used: stone, slate and wood
• Walls are typically made of stone while timber is used for
structural purposes and slates are used for roofing. At
some places, hand-made sun-dried bricks called Cob are
used as load bearing walls.
• Clay and dung are abundantly used because of their
insulation properties – thereby the rooms keep warm in
winters and cool during the summer season. For
plastering of walls (both outer and inner surfaces), mud
paste is used.
• Sloping roofs of the houses naturally drain the rain water.
• Chajja over windows for shading and protection against
rain.
• Floors are kept low so that natural warmth can be
conserved. Height of doors and windows is kept very
small for the same reason.

27. ARCHITECTURE STYLE IN KUMAON REGION
• Region covered: the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun,
Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal
and Uttarkashi.
• The walls are typically made of stone while timber is
used for the structural purposes and the slates are used
for roofing.
• The floors are made of wooden planks or mud, for
insulation and occasionally stone slabs are also used.
• The buildings are placed along the contours in the
stepped terraces with large openings in front of the
building and the waste drains in the rear part.
• Orientation of the house: East, south and west.
• To receive sunlight at the rear part of the buildings also,
the height and the spaces between them are graded.
• The design of the typical traditional house i.e. the
'Kholi' has the entry from the centre of the house
dividing the house into two parts. Over time, both the
parts have evolved into two separate units on either
side.

28. ARCHITECTURE STYLE IN GARHWAL REGION
• Region covered: Almora, Bageshwar,
Champawat, Nainital, Pithoragarh, and Udham
Singh Nagar.
• Site Selection: usually enroute to the pilgrim
centers, near sources of water and in the
areas which provide protection from the cold
winds in winter.
• Rectangular house plans with 2 – 3 floors.
• The living and cooking areas have low height
and are provided above the cattle space, fuel
and fodder space to provide warmth in
winters.
• Approach to the living areas on the first floor
is through the staircase on the side of the
house.
• The balcony mostly 75cm in width in front of
the house forms an integral part of the
building.
• The sloping roofs are made with slates and are
supported over wooden trusses.

29. • The 'Kothar' or the grain storage structure
symbolizes the affluence of the family and is
located near the house.
• These are wooden structures placed 1.0m above
the ground level with a small gap all-around the
rectangular structure to keep it isolated so that the
grains do not get damaged easily.
• At some strategic locations, 7-8 storied tall wooden
structures were made with timer frames called
'Sumers'.
• These structures dominate the skyline and served
as emergency shelters, watch towers, place of
village diety and as a landmark for the town.
• Sumers have a modular form and were made
flexible enough to bear the tremors of an
earthquake, with the floor to floor height
extending from 1.5 to 1.8 m.
Koti Banal house
Kothar

31. FOOTHILLS LOW LEVEL HILLY REGION MOUNTAIN REGION
Availability of good quality top soil Easy access to building quality stone Easy access to building quality stone
Warm temperatures and moderate
level of precipitation
Limited availability of good quality
top soil
Limited availability of good quality
top soil
Easy availability of non- local
materials
Varying availability of timber and of
water
Varying availability of timber and of
water
Agricultural waste is used for
construction.
Wall (mud) , Roof (thatch) ,
Framework (timber)
Moderate precipitation with no
snow in winters
Extreme cold and snow in winter
Coursed Random Rubble (RR)
masonry is used commonly for load
bearing walls.
Increased seismic activity
The walls are usually built without
mud plaster due to limited
availability of the soil suitable as
mortar and plaster.
Coursed/ uncoursed random rubble
masonry is most commonly used
with or without mud mortar due to
varying availability of water.
CONTRUCTION CONSIDERATION ACCORDING VARIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

32. FOREIGN COUNTRIES

33. TIBET

34. LOCATION

35. WEATHER CONDITION
• Climate: cold and dry
• Tibet receives only 18 inches
• (460 mm) of precipitation (both rain
and snow) annually, with much of
that falling during the summer
months.
• The Himalayas act as a barrier to
the monsoon (rain-bearing) winds
from the south, and precipitation
decreases from south to north.
• Temperatures in the higher
elevations are cold, but the lower
valleys and the southeast are mild
and pleasant. Seasonal variation is
minimal
• Lhasa, which lies at an elevation of
11,975 feet (3,650 metres), has a
daily maximum temperature of 85 °F
(30 °C) and a minimum of −2 °F (−19
°C).

36. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET-HISTORY
Tibetan construction activities can be traced back over 1300 years, when the first Buddhist temples were built in central
Tibet. The earliest surviving Tibetan religious monuments are closely based on Indian prototypes. Later temples and
monuments, built after the period of the second diffusion of Buddhism, are very similar to Tibetan vernacular
architecture. They show only limited foreign architectural influences. The earliest extant defensive structures appear
likewise to be based on indigenous designs and technologies. Tibet has perfected its own unique style of architecture. A
handful of standardized principles give Tibetan buildings their characteristic organic design.
These include:
• Symmetries in lay-out and façade design
• The most desirable building sites are on elevated land facing south.
• Slightly trapezoidal form, heavy at the bottom (stone foundations) and light at the top, generally with battered walls
• flat roofs with parapets
• Detailed code for the decoration of doors, windows and parapets (including painted black frames around doors and
windows, and complex wooden overhang decorations)
• Intricately carved interior timber frame following standardized design
• principles Organic design – buildings appear to grow out of the landscape

37. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET-MATERIAL USED
These include:
• Tibetan structures are constructed of natural materials such as stone, clay, and wood. Since 1980, concrete has also
come into use but so far is not widespread.
• Most Tibetans live in houses made of adobe-brick or stone walls and slate roofs or tents made of yak hair
or black and white felt.

38. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET
STUPAS OR CHORTEN
• Chorten or Stupa (མཆོད་རྟེན་) is an important religious
monument in Buddhism, symbolizing Buddha’s presence.
• It also holds precious Buddhist relics and sometimes even
preserved bodies of renowned lamas.
• Tibetans believe that performing Koras of the monument is
an act of high merit.
STRUCTURE
• The shape of the Stupa represents Buddha with a crown who
is seated in a posture of meditation on a lion throne.
• The top of the spire, with the well-known ‘twin-symbol’
uniting the sun and moon, is the crown,
• the square at the spire’s base is his head,
• the vase shape symbolizes his body,
• the steps (four) of the lower terrace are his legs while the
square foundation base is his throne.

39. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET
MONASTERY OR GOMPA
• A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monks or nuns,
whether living in communities or alone (hermits).
• A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer ,temple, and may also serve as an oratory,
• anything from a single building housing: only one senior and two or three junior monks or nuns, to vast complexes and
estates housing tens or hundreds.
• A monastery complex typically comprises several buildings which includes
temple, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary, and outlying granges.

40. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET
HOUSES
Tibetan houses have traditionally been built depending on the availability of the materials, and accordingly can divided
into a few types: stone houses in the valley in southern Tibet, tent houses in the pastoral area in northern Tibet and the
wooden structure houses in the forest region of Yarlung Zangbo River drainage area
• The most common housing style in Tibet has a white stone tower and looks like a military fortification.
• The house of local Tibetan usually has two floors.
• The lower floor is for livestock and the upper floor is for the family. The upper floor is comprised of living rooms,
storerooms and a shrine room.
• prayer flags on the roof of the houses in Tibet.
• Many houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south.
• The roof of Tibetan houses are flat so that it is easier to remove frequent snows. The flat roof is also built to conserve
heat as little fuel is available for heat or lighting in Tibet. Each house has many windows for letting in sunlight. The tops
of the windows have an eave which is covered with a piece of red, white and blue striped cloth.
• Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area.

41. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET-HOUSE
PLAN:
• Tibetan houses are resistant to cold, wind and earthquakes, and also have patios and
louvers built to deal with the harsh Tibetan climate. They often have walls that are one
meter thick and built with stones.
• the living rooms are at the two sides, the kitchen is closely adjacent to the living rooms,
and the restroom is at the two corners of the bounding wall far from the living rooms.
• Windows have eaves, the edges of which are folded with colourful square wood so as to
protect the windowsill from rain and at the same time showcase the home’s beauty.
• The two sides of all residence doors and windows are spread with black paint, which
provide stark contrasts with the white walls. Generally,
• rural area residences’ courtyards include a tool production room, foraged grass storing
room, sheep pen, cowshed, and more due to the agricultural lifestyles of its inhabitants.
• The roofs are built with scores of tree trunks, and then covered with a thick layer of clay.
When it is finished, the roof is flat, due to the dry, sunny and windy climate of Tibet.
Steeped roofs are more useful when there is a lot of snow. A flat roof can help Tibetans
collect rare rainfall in places where water is scarce.
Typical features of Tibetan buildings include:
1) inward sloping walls, made of mud bricks or stones;
2) a layer of smashed twigs below the roof that produce a distinctive brown band;
3) a flat roof made of pounded earth (since there is little precipitation there is a only a small
chance the roof will collapse);
4) whitewashed exterior walls.
5) The interior of large buildings is supported by wooden pillars.

42. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET- CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
• Raw materials for construction of Tibetan buildings, such as
stones, wood and mud, are all taken from nature.
• Construction method is original and simple hand measurement
method. It is impressed by the people all around the world that
a strong building that has not been moved for 100 years is built
only with simple material and wall building method
• Courses of large rectangular stones, roughly of equal size, are
laid between layers of small flat stones. This technique, known
as galetted rubble, gives the walls a greater flexibility in case of
tremors and therefore adds to the stability of a house. The top
of a wall is sealed against rain by a cornice made from slate and
wood, crowned by a mound of clay.
• Internal straightness and external reception techniques ensure
stability. Wall thickness is 0.8 meters, tapering to 0.5 meters at
the top. Various stone forms are used, overlapped with slight
gaps for strength.
• Special node structures, like large square bars at corners,
provide stability, akin to modern spurs. Overlapping walls focus
on compression resistance. Workers embed large stones at
intervals for added stability.

43. ARCHITECTURE IN TIBET- CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
• The top floor uses wooden boards while the roof is earth and rock.
• Due to the landscape's constraints, buildings conform to the terrain and available space. External walls are
supported by mountains, shaping entrances and exits accordingly.
• Doors signify social hierarchy, reflecting the owner's identity, status, and wealth. In mountainous regions,
door gradation is less emphasized. Doors are about 1.8 meters high, made of wood, with a white stone above
the threshold, representing the White Stone God of the Jiarong Tibetans for family safety.
• Hanging prayer flags signal the need for chanting to ward off negative influences.

44. NORWAY
Tradition is the heart of any vernacular.
• Continent: Europe
• Region: Northern Europe
• Coordinator: 50 degrees North and 8 degrees East
• Land: 94.95%
• Water: 5.05%
• That Norway is located in north Europe leads to short summer
and long winter seasons.
• Norway has a high mineral and bedrock diversity, and high
diversity of landforms. Major landscape types include inland hills
and mountains, inland valleys, inland plains, coastal plains,
coastal fjords and coastal hills and mountains.
• Glaciated; mostly high plateaus and rugged mountains broken
by fertile valleys; small, scattered plains; coastline deeply
indented by fjords; arctic tundra only in the extreme northeast
(largely found on the Varanger Peninsula).
• Frozen ground all year can also be found in the higher mountain
areas and in the interior of Finnmark county. Numerous
glaciers are also found in Norway.

45. GENERAL FEATURES
1. Archeological evidence in Norway indicates that Nordic
Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements were commonly
large, communal, and multipurpose buildings.
2. These buildings were not particularly durable; they
were supported by posts in the ground that rotted in
the course of a few decades.
3. Roofs were thatched or covered with birch bark and
turf, and walls were built of turf, palisades or Wattle
and daub.
4. Large farms took the form of small communities, with
several buildings, including a hall of assembly.
5. These houses eventually could be as much as 90
meters long and 7 meters wide.
6. These had central open hearths with vents in the roof
above.
7. Norway’s traditional architecture is represented by two
groups of wooden buildings: FARMS AND STAVE
CHURCHES.
8. There was two technical methods used by the
Norwegian builders; the LOG AND STAVE
CONSTRUCTION.

46. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN NORWAY (LOG
CONSTRUCTION)
• The Norwegians built well-crafted wooden structures for 800 years,
and they developed buildings that were suitable for their activities.
• The use of similar structures for such a long time was dictated by
Norway’s agriculture way of life and the environment.
• The pride of each farm was the loft, a two-story building that was
used as storage on all traditional Norwegian farms.
• The loft’s companion was the stue, the traditional dwelling, which
reflected the loft’s character in its advanced log construction.
• Log walls were the main construction of the dwelling, the stue, and
the storage building, the loft, was constructed with a combination of
both stave and log work.
• CONSTRUCTION METHOD
1. one log stacked horizontally on top of another offers a robust wall
and a solid connection at the corners.
2. The integration of the log technique allowed for tighter and more
compact structures.
3. The common use of the log technique, or laft technique as it is
known in Norwegian, began in the period after the Viking era.

47. • FOUNDATION: One common foundation technique was
also to lay stone foundations beneath all the corners– a
form of “point foundation” – using large stones often
sunk below frost-free depth. The space in between was
filled using smaller stones (not sunk to frost-free level) so
that it looks like a ring wall.
Example of loft architecture in Numedal

48. • WALLS:
1. Log construction comprises using a technique where a section of the upper log is cut out so that it fits into
the curve of the lower log and is jointed (notched) at the corners.
2. Traditionally a special type of moss Hylocomium splendens (stair-step moss) was used between the logs as
filling.
3. In order to prevent the logs from twisting or sliding out, concealed wooden pins are used.
4. The wooden pins are driven down into holes in the log above and below at a distance of about 3 metres .
5. The wooden pins bind the logs together and act to shore up the wall.

49. • FLOORS:
1. The floors consist of wooden beams, an insulation
space, floorboards and usually a ceiling below the
beams.
2. The beams are often insulated with clay, wood
chippings or coke in the space between the
beams.
3. In some buildings, the boards from the insulation
space and the beams form the ceiling of the room
below, but the use of panels or other surfaces is
also common below the beams.
4. The beams above cellars/crawl spaces normally
rest on the sleeper wall, rather than in the log
walls, or they are placed directly on the ground.
5. Log building beams often have an important
function in tying the walls together and taking up
the forces from the roof construction so that the
walls are not pushed out by side forces.

50. • ROOF
1. Standard construction methods are a purlin roof,
either with apex purlins alone with several purlins, a
combination of a purlin roof and raftered ceiling, and
various forms of raftered ceiling constructions often
with struts, tie-beams or trusses with horizontal
beams that tie the structure together.
2. The purlin roof methods distribute most of the
weight to the gables and the internal cross-walls,
while raftered ceilings and trusses transfer most of
the weight from the roof to the transverse walls and
any internal transverse load-bearing walls.
3. Raftered ceilings in houses with no internal
transverse walls must have a method for tying the
outer long walls together to avoid the logs from
slipping out.
4. Turf, slate, wood and tiles are standard roofing
materials.

51. STAVE CONSTRUCTION
• A stave church is a medieval wooden Christian church building once
common in north-western Europe. The name derives from the building's
structure of post and lintel construction, a type of timber framing where
the load-bearing ore-pine posts are called stafr in Old Norse (stav in
modern Norwegian).
• The construction of stave churches began in the 11th century, as the
Norwegian population started following Christianity.
• Features
1. It received many Romanesque features; the basilica shape is similar with
the old Romanesque basilica.
2. The circular arcs wad used in most of the stave churches from the
Middle Ages, mainly for construction and décor.
3. The décor could be found on gables, portals and in the interior. The
décor were mostly animal ornamentation, interspersed with Christian
motifs.
• Construction method
1. Some of the churches contain of more than 2000 individual elements,
without counting the roof shingles.
2. The church rests on horizontal beams of wood that rests on a stone
foundation.
3. The vertical poles, the staves, wraps around the central square.
Borgund Stave Church in
Borgund, Lærdal, is one of Norway's
most visited stave churches.

52. • The staves are joined to each other by clamping
beams, usually with additional St Andrew’s crosses
and knee braces to make the frame more solid. The
pitched roof of the central part of the church is
then supported by this frame.
• Stave churches were often built in the best stored
PINE.
• The builders used different techniques to make the
wood more solid. One of these techniques were to
not cut down the tree, but to only cut the top of
the tree off, all the branches and remove the bark,
and then let it stand there for several years. The
tree then tried to survive, but became more and
more covered in resin. The more resin it came on
the wood, the more solid it became.

53. Animal motifs carved in the church’s wall.
In roofs, shingles were used.

54. SWEDEN
• The vernacular architecture of Sweden reflects a rich history, diverse regional styles and is strongly influenced
by the country’s cold and dry climate.

55. GEOGRAPHY
• At 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi),
Sweden is the 55th-largest country in
the world, the fifth-largest country in
Europe, and the largest country in
Northern Europe. The lowest
elevation in Sweden is in the bay of
Lake Hammarsjön , near Kristianstad,
at −2.41 m (−7.91 ft) below sea level.
The highest point is Kebnekaise at
2,111 m (6,926 ft) above sea level.
• The climate of Sweden varies based
on location, but it is mainly
temperate in the south and subarctic
in the north. In the south, summers
are cool and partly cloudy, while
winters are cold and usually very
cloudy. Because northern Sweden is
within the Arctic Circle, it has long,
very cold winters.
Sun direction

56. CLIMATE OF SWEDEN
• The northern parts of the country have
a subarctic climate while the central parts
have a humid continental climate. The
coastal south can be defined as having
either a humid continental climate using
the 0 °C isotherm, or an oceanic
climate using the –3 °C isotherm.
• Most of Sweden has a temperate climate,
despite its northern latitude, with largely
four distinct seasons and mild
temperatures throughout the year.
• The average July high temperature in
Stockholm is 71.4 degrees (22˚C) and the
average January low is 23 degrees (-5˚C).

57. VERNACULAR MATERIALS OF SWEDEN
1.Wood: Wood is perhaps the most fundamental vernacular material in Sweden. The country's vast forests
provide an abundant source of timber, which has been used for centuries in construction. Timber-framed
structures, log cabins, and wooden cladding are all prevalent in Swedish vernacular architecture.
2.Falu Red Paint: The distinctive red color found on many traditional Swedish wooden buildings comes from
Falu Red Paint. This paint is made from the Falun Mine in central Sweden and has been used for centuries
not only for its aesthetic appeal but also for its preservative properties.
3.Stone: Stone is often used for foundations, as well as for some structural and decorative elements.
Granite, limestone, and other types of stone are employed in various regions of Sweden, depending on
local availability.
4.Sod: In northern parts of Sweden, where insulation and protection against extreme cold are essential, sod
roofs have been historically used. A layer of vegetation is grown on the roof to provide insulation and
regulate indoor temperatures.
5.Clay and Earth: Traditional earthen building techniques, such as cob or adobe, were sometimes used in
areas with less wood or stone. These materials offer good insulation properties and were used for walls in
some vernacular buildings.
6.Reeds and Thatch: In some coastal and wetland areas, reeds and thatch were used for roofing materials.
This method was particularly common in traditional buildings in regions like Gotland.

58. 7. Grass and Straw: Traditional roofs in some parts of Sweden were thatched with straw or grass. These materials
were suitable for providing insulation and durability.
8. Moss: Moss was sometimes used to insulate walls and roofs. It can be found in some traditional buildings,
particularly in the northern parts of Sweden.
9. Clay Tiles: In some regions, clay tiles were used for roofing. These tiles provided a durable and attractive
roofing material.
10.Birch Bark: Birch bark was used for various purposes, including roofing and cladding in some parts of Sweden.
It is lightweight, flexible, and naturally waterproof.

59. LOW RISE BUILDINGS WITH VERIOUS OF VERNACULAR MATERIALS

60. VERNACULAR CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
1.Timber Framing: Timber framing is a traditional construction method widely used in Sweden. This technique
involves the use of wooden beams and posts to create a framework for the building. The joints are typically
secured with wooden pegs, providing structural stability.
2.Log Construction: Log construction is prevalent in Sweden, especially in rural areas. Logs are stacked horizontally
to form the walls of buildings. This technique is valued for its insulation properties and durability.
3.Half-Timbered Construction: In some regions of Sweden, half-timbered construction is employed. This technique
combines timber framing with infill panels, which can be made of materials like clay, wattle and daub, or brick.
The exposed timber framing is often a decorative feature.
4.Stone Masonry: Stone masonry is used for foundations and, in some cases, for walls. Different types of stone,
such as granite and limestone, are sourced locally and used in construction.
5.Sod Roofing: Sod roofing, particularly in the northern parts of Sweden, involves using layers of soil, turf, and
vegetation on the roof. This technique provides excellent insulation and helps regulate indoor temperatures.
6.Thatch Roofing: Thatch roofing, made from locally available reeds or straw, is used in certain regions. It provides
good insulation and is known for its aesthetic appeal.
7.Clay and Earthen Construction: In areas with limited access to wood or stone, clay and earth are used to create
walls. Techniques such as cob or adobe construction involve mixing clay, earth, and other natural materials to
form building walls.

61. 8. Birch Bark and Moss Insulation: Birch bark and moss are used for insulation in some vernacular
buildings. Birch bark is placed between logs in log cabins to seal gaps, and moss is used to insulate walls
and roofs.
9. Sauna Construction: Saunas are an integral part of Swedish culture, and building saunas involves
traditional construction methods. Saunas are typically made of wood and are heated with wood-burning
stoves.
10.Open Floor Plans: Traditional Swedish interiors often feature open floor plans, with few interior walls.
This design maximizes the use of space and allows for efficient heating.
11.Wattle and Daub: Wattle and daub is a construction method that involves weaving sticks (wattle) and
covering them with a mixture of clay, earth, and straw (daub) to create walls. This technique is
particularly prevalent in historical buildings.
12.Traditional Joinery: Traditional joinery techniques are used in Swedish construction, including dovetail,
mortise and tenon, and lap joints. These techniques ensure structural integrity and are often passed
down through generations of craftsmen.
13.Decorative Woodwork: Many Swedish buildings feature intricate decorative woodwork, both on the
exterior and interior. Carved trim, intricate patterns, and decorative details are common.

62. half-timbered construction
Sod Roofing construction
Birch Bark and Moss Insulation
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

63. THANK YOU!