research methods

1. Research Methods for MPH Students
Berhe G/Michael (MPH, Assistant Professor)
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2. Outline
• Definitions and purposes of research
• Types of research
• Components of research work
• Steps/processes in proposal development
• Research problem identification
• Research problem prioritization and topic selection
• Problem statement and analysis
• Formulating research objectives/questions/hypotheses
• Literature review
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3. Definitions of research
• Research is a scientific inquiry and systematic process of discovery, learning new
facts, testing ideas and advancement of human knowledge
• It is a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new
knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem
(Degu and Yigzaw, 2006; Gratton and Jones, 2009)
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4. Definitions of research…cont’d
What is health research?
• Health research is the application of the principles of research on health
• It is the process of obtaining systematic knowledge and technology which can be used
for the improvement of the health of individuals, groups or populations
• It is a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to solve a health
problem
(Davies, 1991; Degu and Yigzaw, 2006)
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5. Definitions of research…cont’d
Reading assignment:
• Read on the differences and similarities between health research, clinical audit and
quality improvement/assurance
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6. Research design and methods
• Research design is the overall structure or plan of the research
• Research methods refers to the practices and techniques used to recruit/select study
participants, and collect, process, analyze and interpret data
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7. Purpose of research
• To generate knowledge essential for:
– Guiding actions
– Developing new tools
– Saving resources
– Multiplying benefits
– Enhancing capacity development
• Without the knowledge generated from research, effective action is impossible because
it has no logical or empirical basis
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8. Types of researches
1. Based on its purpose;
• Theoretical/pure/basic research
 Generates new knowledge and technologies to answer a theoretical research
question
 Results are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories
• Applied research
 Identifies priority problems to design and evaluate policies and programs that
will deliver the greatest benefit, making optimal use of available resources
 It is usually based on knowledge or results obtained from theoretical research
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9. Types of researches…cont’d
2. Based on the depth of scope;
• Exploratory research
 Is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject to establish a
hypothesis/reference
 It is based on the study of little-studied phenomena
 It relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to explain the
phenomena
• Descriptive research
 Defines the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily
investigating the causes
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10. Types of researches…cont’d
…based on the depth of scope;
• Explanatory research
 Is the most common type of research and is responsible for establishing cause-
and-effect relationships
 It allows generalizations to be extended to similar realities
• Correlational research
 Identifies the relationship between two or more variables
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11. Types of researches…cont’d
3. Based on the data used;
• Qualitative research
 Is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena (answers why,
how…questions)
 It is more of subjective
• Quantitative research
 Investigates things which could be observed and measured objectively (answers
how much/many/often, to what extent…questions)
 It uses mathematical, statistical and computer aided tools to measure variables
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12. Types of researches…cont’d
4. Based on the degree of manipulation of variables;
• Experimental research
 Designing and replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated
under strictly controlled conditions (e.g. RCT studies)
• Non-experimental/observational research
 Focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context
 The researcher does not intervene directly
• Quasi-experimental research
 It controls only some variables of a phenomenon, and is not entirely
experimental
 There is an intervention, but no randomization
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13. Types of researches…cont’d
5. Based on the type of inference;
• Inductive research (bottom-up approach)
 Is based on collection of specific data to develop new theories and
generalizations (developing a theory)
• Deductive research (top-down approach)
 Reality is explained by general laws/premises that point to certain conclusions
 Moves from general to specific conclusions (testing an existing theory)
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14. Types of researches…cont’d
6. Based on the time the research is done;
• Longitudinal/diachronic research
 Aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over
time
• Cross-sectional/synchronous research
 Used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of subjects at a given
time
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15. Types of researches…cont’d
7. Based on the sources of data;
• Primary research
 The data is collected directly from the source (first-hand data)
• Secondary research
 Information is developed from secondary sources, which are based on scientific
literature and other documents compiled by another researcher
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16. Components/phases of research work
1. Preparing research proposal
2. Fieldwork (mainly data collection)
3. Analyzing data and preparing a research report
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17. Steps/processes in proposal development
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18. Steps/processes in proposal development…cont’d
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19. Research problem identification (research focus area)
How do we identify important (health) problems?
• Dialog and discussions with managers/colleagues
• Feedback from others
• Felt needs and working experience
• Magnitude/severity of issues/problems
• Joint discussion with colleagues
 Brainstorming
 Delphi
 Nominal group technique (NGT)
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20. Research problem identification…cont’d
Which of the identified problems need research?
• Whether an identified problem requires research depends on three conditions:
 There should be a perceived discrepancy between what it is and what it should be
 The reason(s) for this discrepancy should be unclear
 There should be more than one possible and plausible answer to the question
• If any of the following is true for your problem, you do not need to research it:
 Can the problem be solved by administrative change?
 Are there already solutions available that can be used?
 Is the problem due to lack of manpower and resources?
 Is there data showing that it is not a significant problem?
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21. Criteria for prioritizing problems and selecting research topic/title
1. Relevance: priority/importance, magnitude/size and severity of the problem, health
and social consequences of the problem
2. Avoidance of duplication: has the topic been researched?
3. Feasibility: complexity and resource needed (manpower, time, equipment…)
4. Political commitment: interest and support of authorities to utilize results
5. Applicability (cost-effectiveness): blessing of authorities/managers and
availability of resources for implementing recommendations/solutions
6. Timeliness: urgency of data needed for decision making
7. Ethical acceptability: will the study/project be acceptable to those studied?
8. Interest and background of the researchers (knowledge, experience, skills…)
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22. Research topic/title
• Provides a brief and informative summary that will attract your target audience
• It should be specific and complete (at least answers what, whom and where questions)
• Should be in line with your general objective
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23. Class activity
• Select your research focus area
• Then, write your research topic and discuss it with your colleagues/partners
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24. Statement of the problem
• Describes the problem and the questions that will guide the research process
• Is concise description of the problem (magnitude, distribution, severity, consequences)
• Is a foundation for further development of the research proposal
• Elucidates the rationale for undertaking the proposed research
 Brief description of past research and the gaps
 Convincing argument that available knowledge is insufficient to provide answer to
your research question
 Why further study is needed? i.e. justification of your study
• It also describes contribution to knowledge that the research will make and its place in
current debate or technological advance
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25. Why is it important to state and define the problem statement clearly?
• Is the foundation for further development of the research proposal (research
objectives, methodology, etc.)
• Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own
study design can benefit
• Enables you to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem
should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results
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26. A Problem Statement should be written as:
• Precise and concise, while not forgetting to mention essential points
• Information concerning the problem should be summarized, so the reader is not
“drowned” in detail
• It should be coherent and well organized
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27. Problem Statement (why do we need to do this study?)
• Write a narrative introduction on the following issues:
 Why was this problem identified?
 How bad is the problem? (magnitude, severity…)
 Who is affected?
 Where is the problem?
 What is the impact of the problem?
 How do you anticipate the study to help overcome the problem?
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28. Problem analysis (what exactly is the problem?)
• Use problem analysis methods (e.g. problem analysis chart/bubble diagram,
Ishikawa/fish-bone chart, mind-mapping…) and include the following:
 What factors might contribute to or cause the problem?
 What are the relationships among the various factors contributing to the problem?
 If the scope of the study is limited to few areas, justify and give reasons why?
• The problem analysis chart will guide the direction of the study and is used to
identify:
 Scope of the study
 Objectives
 Variables (areas to be covered in the tools for data collection)
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29. Research objectives
• A research objective is a statement that clearly depicts the goal to be achieved by a
research project.
• In other words, the objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved
by the study
• Specific objectives will facilitate
 The development of your research methodology and
 Will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data
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30. Purposes of a research objectives
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
• Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and
solving the problem you have identified
• Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases
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31. Characteristics of good objectives
• Logical and coherent
• Feasible
• Realistic and considering local conditions
• Defined in operational terms (action verbs) that can be measured
• Phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study
• SMART (Specific, Measureable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound)
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32. Research objectives can be stated as:
• Questions:
 The objectives of this study are to answer the following questions
• Positive sentences:
 The objectives of this study are to determine …”
• Hypotheses:
 The objective of this study is to verify the following hypotheses
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33. Research objectives…cont’d
• The choice of the research objective types depend on the types of study design
 If the study is descriptive or exploratory in nature, then objectives are stated in the
form of questions or positive sentences
 If the researcher knows enough to make predictions concerning what s/he is
studying, then hypotheses may be proposed
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34. Types of research objectives
1. General objectives
• Summarize what is to be achieved by the study
• Should be clearly related to the statement of the problem
2. Specific objectives
• The general and specific objectives are logically connected to each other
• The specific objectives are commonly considered as smaller portions
(breakdown) of the general objectives
• Use action verbs such as:
-Determine -Verify -Identify
-Describe -Assess -Compare
-Calculate -Establish -Explore…
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35. Research questions
• Research questions are formulated when insight into the problem being studied is not
sufficient.
• Research question should:
 Be focused, each covering a single point
 Be ordered in a logical sequence
 Be realistic and feasible to answer
 Have measurable outcomes at the end of the research
• E.g. does post-menopausal hormone replacement therapy predispose women to
endometrial cancer?
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36. Research questions…cont’d
• A good question includes the following elements:
• The patient or client in question (the Problem)
• The Intervention (or exposure) being considered
• A Comparison group (an alternative intervention or control group)
• The Outcome of interest
• This format (i.e. the PICO) does not fit with all questions
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37. Research hypothesis
• A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative prediction or explanation of the
relationship between two or more variables
• It translates the problem statement into a precise, unambiguous predication of
expected outcomes
 NB: it is used for analytical types of studies
• Study hypotheses serve to direct and guide the research
• They indicate the major independent and dependent variables of interest
• They suggest the type of data that must be collected and the type of analysis that must
be conducted in order to measure the relationship among the variables
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38. Hypothesis…cont’d
• A single hypothesis might state that variable A is associated with variable B, or that
variable A causes variable B
• Sometimes a hypothesis will specify that, under condition X, Y and Z, variable A is
associated with variable B
• When writing hypothesis statements, it is important to keep in mind the distinction
between independent and dependent variables
• An independent variable causes, determines, or influences the dependent variable
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39. Stating research hypotheses
1. Null hypothesis
• There is no relationship/difference
 E.g. there is no significant relationship between or among the variables of interest
• This format is suitable in the context of statistical theory and the philosophy of
science
2. Directional or alternative hypothesis
• The ‘direction’ of the relationship is clearly indicated
 E.g. urban resident women are more likely to use ANC service than rural ones
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40. Class activity
• Write your research objectives, questions and hypothesis, and discuss in pair/small
group
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41. Literature review (what have other people done? In what areas is research still
required for this problem?)
• Literature review is a self-contained piece of written work that gives a concise
summary of previous findings in an area/topic of the research
• A “review of the literature” is a classification and evaluation of what accredited
scholars and researchers have written on a topic
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42. Purposes of literature review
• Helps to know the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being
undertaken
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature, filling in gaps and
extending prior studies
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study
• It serves as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings
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43. Importance of literature review
• It is essential and an integral part of the process of conducting research
• A properly executed critical review of the literature lays a sound foundation for the
study from which;
 The rationale for the study,
 The statement of the problem, are emerged
 Hypotheses or research questions, and
 The design of the research
• A complete and thoughtful review will help you convey the message that you mean
the problem
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44. Importance of literature review…cont’d
• It helps you find out what others have learned and reported on your topic, and take
account of this in the design of your study
• It gives you a familiarity with the various types of methodology that might be used in
your study
• It prevents you from reinventing the wheel (duplication)
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45. Steps of literature reviews
• Determining the scope of your literature review
• Identifying sources and searching of literatures using key words
• Reading the literatures, quick read or skim
• Evaluating/appraise the information
• Organizing the literature (e.g. using literature map)
• Writing the literature review
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46. Literature appraisal
• Main points to be considered during literature review:
 Evaluate the internal and external validity of the study
• It involves asking the question ‘am I persuaded by this study’s results?’
• Is the purpose of the study clear and well defined?
• How was the study done? Are the methods clearly described and appropriate?
• Are the results presented in a clear and understandable format?
• Does the interpretation of the results seem consistent with the results presented?
• Are there other explanations that could account for the results?
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47. Guideline for appraisal of articles
• Check if the journal has peer review process or not
 Reading articles
 Scanning the abstract, the introduction, headings and subheadings, tables and
figures, discussion and conclusions, and the reference list
 This will provide you with an initial impression of the article
• Has the author formulated a problem/issue?
• Is the problem/issue ambiguous or clearly articulated? Is its significance (scope,
severity, relevance) discussed?
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48. Guideline for appraisal of articles…cont’d
• What are the strengths and limitations of the way the author has formulated the
problem or issue?
• Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective?
• What is the author's research orientation (e.g., interpretive, critical science,
combination)?
• What is the relationship between the theoretical and research perspectives?
• Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author
include literature taking positions s/he does not agree with?
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49. Guideline for appraisal of articles…cont’d
• How good are the three basic components of the study design (i.e., population,
intervention, outcome)?
• How accurate and valid are the measurements?
• Is the analysis of the data accurate and relevant to the research question?
• Are the conclusions valid based upon the data and analysis?
• How does the author structure his or her argument?
• Does the article contribute to your understanding of the problem under study, and in
what ways is it useful for theory or practice? What are its strengths and limitations?
• How does the article fit into the thesis or question you are developing?
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50. Organizing literature
• Literature map is a visual picture (or figure) of groupings of the literature on the topic,
that illustrates how your particular study will contribute to the literature, positioning
your own study within the larger body of research
• Organization of the literature enables a person to understand how the proposed study
adds to, extends, or replicates research already completed
• This map is a visual summary of the researches that has been conducted by others
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51. Maps are organized in different ways
1. Hierarchical pattern, with a top-down presentation of the literature, ending at the
bottom with the proposed study
2. Flowchart layout, in which the reader understands the literature as unfolding from
left to right with the farthest right‐hand section advancing a proposed study
3. Series of circles, with each circle representing a body of literature and the intersection
of the circles the place in which the future research is indicated
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52. Literature map…cont’d
• As you put together the literature map, also begin to draft summaries of the most
relevant articles
 These summaries are combined into the final literature review that you write for
your proposal
 Include precise references to the literature using an appropriate style so that you
have a complete reference to use at the end of the proposal/study
• After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature review, structuring it
thematically or organizing it by important concepts
 End the literature review with a summary of the major themes and suggest how
your particular study further adds to the literature
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53. Write up of literature review
• Sheds light on the central issue being investigated and its relevance to the
discipline/profession/policy
• Synthesis or summarizes major elements, to enable a reader to understand the basic
features of the article
• Avoid plagiarism
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54. 1/20/2023 54
Different types of literature review

55. Abstracting studies
• A good summary of a research study reported in an article might include the following
points:
 The problem being addressed
 Central purpose or focus of the study
 Brief information about the sample and population
 Key results that related to the proposed study
 If it is a methodological review, point out technical and methodological flaws in the
study
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56. 1/20/2023 56
Conceptual framework
• It helps to summarize and present the key determinant/associated factors of the
outcome of the study by using figures
• It is good to identify clearly between distal, intermediate and proximal factors and its
link with the outcome variable
 It helps to guide data collection instrument (e.g. questionnaire) development and
data analysis

57. Styles of referencing and citation
1. Vancouver style
2. Harvard style
– There are more styles in use for referencing to literatures
– You should follows the university's reference citation style (Author date …..)
– Always carefully look what system/style is used in the journal you are submitting
an article to and follow it systematically
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58. Vancouver style of citations of articles/books
• For an article: Authors surname followed by initials. Title of the article, name of
journal. Year, Volume (number): page number of the article
• For a book: Authors surname followed by initials. Title of book. Place: Publisher,
year, edition
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59. Harvard style of citations of articles/books
• For an article: Authors surname followed by initials (Year). Title of the article, name
of journal., Volume (number): page number of the article.
• For a book: Authors surname followed by initials (year). Title of book. Place:
Publisher, edition
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60. Individual assignment
• Select your own research topic specific to your specialty track
• Write 2-3 paragraphs of problem statement
• Formulate your general and specific objectives
• Write 2-4 paragraphs of literature review
NB: if you come up with good topic, it may be considered for your main thesis
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61. Thank you!
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