The document describes the different mouth parts of insects which include the labrum, mandibles, maxillae, labium, and hypopharynx. It also discusses the various types of insect wings such as membranous, fringed, haltere, scaly, tegmina, elytra, and hemelytra wings. Additionally, it provides a brief overview of insect reproduction, circulatory, nervous, excretory, digestive, respiratory, and digestive systems.

1. INSECT MOUTH PARTS
 Labrum - a cover which may be loosely referred to as the
upper lip.
 Mandibles - hard, powerful cutting jaws.
 Maxillae - 'pincers' which are less powerful than the
mandibles. They are used to steady and manipulate the
food. They have a five segmented palp which is sensory
and often concerned with taste.
 Labium - the lower cover, often referred to as the lower
lip. It actually represents the fused pair of ancestral
second maxillae. They have a three segmented palp
which is also sensory.
 Hypopharynx - a tongue-like structure in the floor of the
mouth. The salivary glands discharge saliva through it.

4.  In general, insect mouthparts are modified, paired appendages
used to capture, manipulate and chew food (with the exception of
the labrum, which is unpaired).
 The labrum is a sclerite or plate that acts as the 'upper lip' in
insects that have chewing mouthparts. It essentially forms the
roof of the mouth and is useful for pulling food into the mouth. It
moves longitudinally (i.e. an up and down motion) and is hinged
to the clypeus.
 The mandibles are the first pair of jaws in insects, moving
laterally (i.e. from side to side) when in use. Mandible shape is
strongly influenced by function and is therefore highly variable.
For example a chewing insect will have strong tooth-shaped
mandibles while in a sucking insect they will be thin and needle-
shaped. Mandibles are used to cut, chew and tear food as well as
to carry objects, fight and mould materials such as wax or soil.

5.  The maxillae form the second pair of jaws and are
located behind the mandibles. Maxillae are used for
handling food and moves laterally much like the
mandibles. Maxillae posses segmented palps and are
structurally more complex than the mandibles.
 The labium is a fused structure that forms the 'lower
lip' or floor of the mouth in chewing insects. The
labium is often regarded as the 'second maxilla' as it
evolved from paired maxillae-like structures which are
fused along the centre line. The labium moves
longitudinally and possesses a pair of segmented
palps. It is used to close the mouth from either below
or behind, depending on its exact position.

6.  Chewing mouth: Mouth parts that are
modified for chewing i.e grass hopper
 Sucking mouth parts: Mouth parts that are
modified for sucking. i.e laces etc

7. WINGS
 Types of Insect Wing
 1. Membranous: e.g. Dragons Fly Honeybee and
Termites: Wings are thin and transparent. They are
supported by a system of tubular veins. They are useful in
flight.
 2. Fringed: e.g. Thrips: Wing lamina is usually reduced
in size. Wing margins fringed with long setae. These
insects literally swim through the air.
 3. Haltere: e.g. Hand Wings of Housefly: Wings are
modified into small knobbed vibrating organ called
halters, which act as balancing organs and provided the
needed stability during flight.
 4.

8.  Scaly: e.g. Moths and Butterflies: Wings are covered with scales
which are unicellular, flattened outgrowths of the body wall. Scales are
responsible for colour. They are important in smoothening the airflow
over wings and body. They also insulate the insect against cold.
 5. Tegmina: e.g. Forewings of Grasshopper and Cockroach: Wings
are leathery or parchment-like. They are protective in function. They are
not useful for flight.
 6. Elytra: e.g. Forewings of Beetles and Weevils: Wing is heavily
sclerotized and thick. Wing venation is lost. Wing is tough and protective
in function. It protects the hindwings and the abdomen. It is not used for
flight. In flight they are kept at an angle to allow free movement of the
hindwings.
 7. Hemelytra: e.g. Red Cotton Bug: The basal half of the wing is thick
and leathery. The distal half is membranous. They are protective in
function and not involved in flight.

9. REPRODUCTION
 Reproduction Grasshoppers reproduce sexually
(male/female fertilization.) Only full grown
grasshoppers have reproductive organs. Eggs
are produced in the ovaries (female) and sperm
in the testes (male.) When sperm enters the
female body it is stored in the seminal
receptacle. Eggs are fertilized in the oviduct,
then leave the females body. At the end of the
females body is a hard four-pointed
organ called an ovipositor, which is used to dig
holes for the eggs. The eggs are laid in the fall,
but dont hatch until spring. Eggs go through
incomplete metamorphosis

10. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Circulatory A grasshopper has an open
circulatory system which means the blood flows
into open spaces or sinuses. The blood is
colorless because it contains no hemoglobin.
The blood transports food and waste but not
oxygen or carbon dioxide. Along the dorsal
surface of the grasshopper is the aorta and a
tubular heart as well as a large pericardial sinus
and a large sternal sinus. Contractions of the
heart pump da blood through the aorta to the
head. In most open systems the blood moves
slowly but systems are efficient enough to meet
the needs of the organisms.

11. NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous Has more complex behavior than
earthworms ( has a highly developed
nervous system.) Consists of a brain (head
region) , a part of the ventral nerve cords
(throughout the body) and a ganglion
(nerves branch out from here throughout
body.) Has eyes ( compound and simple),
antennae (feelers) and taste organs (respond
to chemical stimuli) and are sensitive to
sounds (using tympanum.)

12. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Excretion Excretory organs are malpighian
tubules. They have open circulatory systems
so the excretory organs are bathed directly
by the blood. Waste from celomic fluid enters
the tubules by diffusion. Then the waste
passes into the intestine. Water and other
nutrients are reabsorbed both in the tubules
and the intestine. These are returned to body
fluids. Dry waste is called uric acid and is
passed from the body, along with feces,
through the anus.

13. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Digestive The grasshopper has a tubular digestive
system. Food enters the mouth and is mechanically
broken down, and then mixed with saliva by salivary
glands. Food is then transported from esophagus to
the crop (temporary storage place.) Chitinous teeth-
like plates, which grind food, are seen in the muscular
gizzards. [Gastric mil (gizzard and crop).] Chemical
digestion takes place in the stomach. Gastric caeca
surround stomach. They contain cellulose digesting
bacteria . In intestines products of digestion are
absorbed by the body through the blood stream.
Then solid waste is excreted via anus

14. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Respiration Does not depend on the circulatory
system. Blood does not need to carry carbon dioxide
and oxygen. Air is carried directly to cells by the
tracheal tubes. Air enters and leaves through 10 pairs
of openings called spiracles. The tracheal tubes
branch out into smaller tubes. These tubes have fluid
filled ends that connect to the cells. This is where the
actual respiration takes place. Oxygen diffuses from
the tubes into the cells, carbon dioxide from the cells
enters the tubes. Oxygen is pumped through the
tracheal tubes by muscle contraction. Small air sacks
contribute to pumping the oxygen through the tubes.

15. INSECT WING
 Insect wings are adult outgrowths of
the insectexoskeleton that enable insects to
fly. They are found on the second and third
thoracic segments (the mesothorax and
metathorax), and the two pairs are often
referred to as the forewings and hind wings,
respectively, though a few insects lack hind
wings, even rudiments.

16. TYPES OF INSECT WING
 1. Membranous: e.g. Dragons Fly Honeybee and Termites: Wings are thin
and transparent. They are supported by a system of tubular veins. They are
useful in flight.
 2. Fringed: e.g. Thrips: Wing lamina is usually reduced in size. Wing margins
fringed with long setae. These insects literally swim through the air.
 3. Haltere: e.g. Hand Wings of Housefly: Wings are modified into small
knobbed vibrating organ called halters, which act as balancing organs and
provided the needed stability during flight.
 4. Scaly: e.g. Moths and Butterflies: Wings are covered with scales which are
unicellular, flattened outgrowths of the body wall. Scales are responsible for
colour. They are important in smoothening the airflow over wings and body. They
also insulate the insect against cold.
 5. Tegmina: e.g. Forewings of Grasshopper and Cockroach: Wings are
leathery or parchment-like. They are protective in function. They are not useful
for flight.
 6. Elytra: e.g. Forewings of Beetles and Weevils: Wing is heavily sclerotized
and thick. Wing venation is lost. Wing is tough and protective in function. It
protects the hindwings and the abdomen. It is not used for flight. In flight they
are kept at an angle to allow free movement of the hindwings.
 7. Hemelytra: e.g. Red Cotton Bug: The basal half of the wing is thick and
leathery. The distal half is membranous. They are protective in function and not
involved in flight.