Communication

COMMUNICATION
MINI G
PROFESSOR
COLLEGE OF NURSING
ANANTHAPURI HOSPITALS, TRIVANDRUM

Brief History of Communication
• Hand signs and body language played
important roles while our ancestors
communicated with one another.

Pictogram
 Pictograms are forms of imagery that
depict a single object, situations, or other
forms of image depiction.
 The Chinese are well-known for relying on
pictograms

Petrograph
• A petrograph on the other
hand, is when one paints
imagery on rocks, without
the use of carving
instruments.

Greek and Roman Alphabets
The Greeks adopted their
alphabetical system from
the Phoenician alphabet,
which later served as the
basis for scripts in the
Middle East and Europe

Smoke Signals
• Smoke signals were an important
form of communication between
parties, of impending danger or
important messages that needed
to be encoded via the signal.
Smoke signals released by cardinals during the selection
of a new pope. White signifies that a new pope has been
chosen, where black means that they're still undecided
(failed ballot).

Pigeon Post
• The highlight of using
pigeon post is recorded
during 1870-71, when Paris
used pigeons to send
messages to neighboring
areas.

Flag Signals (Flag Semaphore)
During the 1850s, US Army Major, Albert J. Myer, developed a
communication system that used the movements of a single
flag by day, using a binary code that helped onlookers the
message being conveyed.

Morse Code
 This code uses a set of lights, on-off tones,
and clicks, that encodes ISO basic Latin
alphabet, Arabic numerals, and other Latin
letters.
 These are produced using a series of 'dits'
and 'dahs', as part of a sequence. During
emergencies, this form of communication is
the quickest means of sending a message

Heliograph
The French engineer
Claude Chappe- along
with his brothers - put
together a successfully
constructed optical
telegraph.

Wireless Telegraph (later called 'radio')

Postal Services
• Who developed the act of delivering posts first,
is still a vague, debatable historical matter, with
many claiming that it may have been Cyrus the
Great, the Persian king.
• China is known for once developing postal
service

Typewriter
Italian inventor Pellegrino
Turri who invented the first of
its kind - including carbon
paper as ink for the typewriter
- for the blind.

Telephone
• It was an invention that replaced its electric
counterpart, making communication easier,
because of the exchange of messages by speech.
• Some say that Alexander Graham Bell stole the
idea from Elisha Gray, another inventor in the
race.

COMMUNICATION
• Basic function of management
• Communication is necessary in all functions
of management

Communication in Management
Planning Motivation
Organizing Leadership
Staffing
Controlling Co-ordination
MANAGEMEN
T
Directing
Communication
Co-ordination is possible only through effective communication in
the organization

• ‘Communication’ originated from a Latin
word ‘communist’ means ‘common’
COMMUNICATION
Communication can be defined as
the process through which two or
more persons come to exchange
ideas and understanding among
themselves

What is Communication?
Communication can be
defined as the process by which
people share ideas, experience,
knowledge and feelings through
the transmission of symbolic
messages.
The means of communication are usually spoken or written
words, pictures or symbols. But we also give information through
body language, gestures, and looks, facial expressions can show
how we feel and what we think about an issue or another person.

What are the most common ways
we communicate?
Written Word

1. The sender
2. Message
3. Encoding
4. Channel
5. Receiver and
6. Decoding
7. Feedback
Elements of communication

Elements of communication
• The sender: the person who intends to make
contact with the objective of passing
information, ideas to other persons
• Message: this is the subject matter of
communication. This might be opinion,
attitude, feelings, views, suggestions, orders
etc.

• Encoding: transmission of subject matter
requires the use of certain symbols like actions,
pictures etc. conversion of the subject matter
into these symbols is the process of decoding
• Channel: the symbols are transmitted through
certain channels like radio, phone, air etc
• Receiver: the person to whom the message is
meant for and sent by the sender
Elements of communication, contd…

• Decoding: decoding and understanding the
message. Successful communication occurs
when the receiver decodes the message which
is transmitted by the sender.
Elements of communication, contd…

Feedback
• Is any information that individuals receive about
their behavior.
• Feedback can be information related to the
productivity of groups in an organization, or the
performance of a particular individual.
• For instance, a manager requires feedback to
determine staff acceptance of his or her newly
set policy whereby staff must phone all patients
to confirm

• To be effective, communication must allow
opportunities for feedback.
• Feedback can take several forms, each with a
different intent.
• descriptive,
• Evaluative and
• prescriptive.
(Keyton, 2002)
Feedback. Contd…

Descriptive feedback: Feedback that identifies or
describes how a person communicates.
For instance, Manager A asks Manager B to
• comment on her behavior at a staff meeting.
• B indicates that A was specific, clear, and instructive on
introducing the staff to the computer database for
managing patient accounts.
• B provides a descriptive feedback of A’s behavior at the
staff meeting.
Feedback. Contd…

Evaluative feedback. Feedback that provides an
assessment of the person who communicates.
In the above case, if Manager B evaluates Manager A’s
behavior and concludes that she is instructive and
helpful, and that causes the staff to feel comfortable
when going to A for help or asking questions, then B has
provided positive evaluative feedback of A’s interaction
with the staff.
Feedback. Contd…

• Prescriptive feedback. Feedback that provides
advice about how one should behave or
communicate.
• For example, Manager A asks Manager B how she
could have made changes to better communicate her
message to her staff.
B suggests for A to be friendlier and more cooperative by giving
the staff specific times that A is available for help with the new
computer database. This type of advice is prescriptive feedback
Feedback. Contd…

The Johari Window
• The process of feedback is also illustrated in the
Johari Window, a useful model for understanding
the communication process
Created by Joe Luft and Harry Ingham
(hence the name “Johari”) (Luft, 1984).
The Johari Window model improves an
individual’s communication skills
through identifying one’s capabilities
and limitations.

The Johari Window
Source: Based on Luft, J. (1984). Group processes: An introduction to group dynamics (3rd ed.). Palo Alto:
Mayfield.
1. Open Area
(Known to self)
(Known to others)
2. Blind Area
(Unknown to self)
(Known to others)
3. Hidden Area
(Known to self)
(Unknown to others)
4. Unknown Area
(Unknown to self)
(Unknown to others)
Feedback
D
i
s
c
l
o
s
u
r
e

Good communication is the foundation for good
management (Peter F.Drucker)
• Without a good communication planning is not
possible to be realistic
• Communication is necessary for effective
organizing
• Communication is part of performing the
functions of staffing- recruitment, selection,
training and promotions
• Establishment of standards of performance is
the key role in controlling

The mission
Objectives, goals
Policies
Estimation of future sales, etc
Clear organisation structure
Delegation
Decentralisation
Line & staff relationship
Recruitment
selection
Training
Promotions
[
Establishment of standards
Measurement of performance
correcting deviations
Communication
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Controlling

Verbal Communication
Oral communication: refers to the spoken words
in the communication process. It can either be
• face-to-face or a conversation
• over the phone or
• on the voice chat over the Internet.
Spoken conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice
modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity
of speaking.

Oral communication
Advantages
• Helpful in clarifying the ideas and opinion of both
parties
• Manager prefer oral communication, help to address
workers directly
Disadvantage
• Time consuming
• Not taken seriously by the receiver and purpose may
not be achieved
• Sometimes misunderstood by the receiver because
the spoken words may not be clearly heard or
understood.

• written communication. Letters, personal
journals, e-mails, reports, articles, and memos
are some forms of written communication.
The effectiveness of written communication depends on
the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity
and precision of language.
Verbal Communication, contd…

Written communication
Advantages
• Easily verified, more precisely defined
• It is a permanent record-so people will
make it more precise and accurate
• Lengthy and complicated messages are
better understood if they are put in writing

Drawbacks
• Time consuming, decision is delayed in
written communication
• There is possibility of ambiguity or lack of
clarity
• Over reliance on writtem comm. lead too much
of paper work.
• Not only consumes, time, money and energy
but also indicates a lack of trust among the
employees of organization

Comparison between oral and written
communication
Oral communication
• Sender and receiver exchange
their ideas orally
• More rapid and quick in
transmitting message
• Possible to aviod ambiguity and
confusion
• Important points may
emphasized through actions
• Capacity of being stored for
future reference is low
• Comparatively more
economical
• Sender and receiver exchange
their ideas through written
forms
• Time consuming process to
reach the receiver.
• Comm. Flows through indirect
approach.
• Action is missing
• Capacity of being stored for
future reference is very high.
• Sometimes it is more costly

Nonverbal Communication
• Non-verbal communication includes the overall body
language of the person who is speaking
• include the body posture, the hand gestures, and the
overall body movements.
• Facial expressions also play a major role in
communication.
Non verbal communication can also be in the form of
pictorial representations, signboards, or even
photographs, sketches and paintings.

Types of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is
the process of communicating
by sending and receiving non-
verbal messages by means of
gestures, body language, or
facial expressions.

Different Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Facial Expressions
• Just a smile or frown can
speak thousands of words.
• They depict happiness,
sadness, fear, anger,
confusion, and various
other emotions.

Eye Contact
• Eye contact or gaze can
also be an effective tool
of nonverbal
communication.
• It is primarily used to
gage the degree of
attention or interest.

Posture
• The body language of a
person can speak
volumes about him.
• Nonverbal body language
can help in conveying
feelings and
demonstrating attitude.

Gestures
• gestures are deliberate
movements or signals made to
convey something to another
person.
• Most commonly used gestures
are waving of hands, pointing
fingers, clenched fist, salute,
clapping, thumb up, etc.

Haptic
• Communicating by touch is by
far the most important among
the various types of nonverbal
communication.
• The six different types of touch
are positive, playful, control,
ritualistic, task-related, and
unintentional; the last one being
mostly perceived as
meaningless.

Paralanguage
• Paralanguage is indeed vocal
communication, but it's
different from normal spoken
language.
• A sigh and gasp are the best
examples of the same.

Proxemics
• Proxemics is primarily based
on the amount of personal
space we need or maintain
when we indulge in any sort of
activity.
• This can be attributed to
various factors including social
norms, familiarity with the
other person, and personal
characteristics of an individual.

Appearance
• Regardless of whether you are
addressing a group of people or
interacting with someone for the
first time, your audience has
already made some assumptions
about you based on your
appearance.

• Experts in human communication found that
Typical message between two persons
– 7%- carried out by oral words
– 38 % of message carried by one’s voice (pacing,
timing, pauses, accent)
– 55% of message in non-verbal form.
Non-verbal forms means- physical attitude (body
language) going along with verbal message
Nonverbal Communication

• Gestures – communicate the meaning
– Hand shake
– Smile
– Eye contact
– Posture while standing or sitting
– facial expression while listening
– Shrug of shoulders
Movement of any part of our body represents
different communications. One should be aware
and watchful of their body movements and
mannerisms

Non verbal actions which assist communication
are
• Smiling
• Speaking at a low voice
• Smiling and showing animation
• Maintaining eye contact
• Nodding the head
• Clapping the hands when important points are
noticed

No verbal actions that oppose the
communication are
• Looking away or turning away from the
speaker
• Closing eyes
• Using an unpleasant tone of voice

Verbal Communication-
Types
1. Intrapersonal Communication
This form of communication is extremely private and
restricted to ourselves.
 It includes the silent conversations we have with
ourselves, wherein we juggle roles between the
sender and receiver who are processing our thoughts
and actions.
 This process of communication when analyzed can
either be conveyed verbally to someone or stay
confined as thoughts.

2. Interpersonal Communication
• This form of communication takes place
between two individuals and is thus a one-on-
one conversation.
• Here, the two individuals involved will swap
their roles of sender and receiver in order to
communicate in a clearer manner.
Types

3. Small Group Communication
• This type of communication can take place only
when there are more than two people involved.
• Here the number of people will be small enough
to allow each participant to interact and
converse with the rest.
• Press conferences, board meetings, and team
meetings are examples of group communication.
Types

4. Public Communication
This type of communication takes place when
one individual addresses a large gathering of
people.
Election campaigns and public speeches are
example of this type of communication.
In such cases, there is usually a single sender of
information and several receivers who are
being addressed.
Types

Communication Based on Style and
Purpose
Based on the style of communication, there can be two
broad categories:
 formal and
 informal communication

Formal Communication
 It includes all the instances where communication has
to occur in a set formal format.
 Typically this can include all sorts of business or
corporate communication.
 Official conferences, meetings and written memos and
corporate letters are used for this form of
communication.
 It can also occur between two strangers when they
meet for the first time.
Hence, formal communication is straightforward,
official and always precise and has a stringent
and rigid tone to it.

Types of formal communication
• Downward communication
• Upward communication
• Diagonal or sideward communication
• Cross communication
• One-way communication

Types
Downwards Communication : Highly Directive, from
Senior to subordinates, to assign duties, give
instructions, to inform to offer feed back, approval to
highlight problems etc.
Upwards Communications : It is non directive in nature
from down below, to give feedback, to inform about
progress/ problems, seeking approvals.
Lateral or Horizontal Communication: Among colleagues,
peers at same level for information sharing for
coordination, to save time.

Communication networks in formal
communication
Most popular networks
 Wheel
 Chain
 Circle and
 ‘Y’

Wheel/Star
• Also called ‘star’ network
• It represent an administrator and 4 subordinates
with whom he/she interact
• No interaction among the subordinates
E
EE
E E

CHAIN
• It represent a 5 level
hierarchy
• Communication takes
place only in upward or
downward direction
• This occur in
decentralized structure
• No member can influence
other
B
C
D
E
A

CIRCLE
• Represent a 3 level
hierachy
• No communication
between superior and
subordinates
• This occur in
decentralized structure
• No member is able to
influence others
A
D
B
A
C

‘Y’ Type
• 4 level hierarchy
• 2 subordinates report to
the superior
• It is highly centralized
with superior occupying
the central position
A B
C
E
D

Advantages of formal channel of
communication
• Structure is narrow but it allows flow of
essential information
• It is easy to maintain, orderly in nature,
support the authority of the superior, provide
closeness of contact
• Helps in exercising control over subordinates
and in fixing responsibility

• Enhancing organizational distance
• Greater possibility of errors in transmission
• Screening at various filter points
These errors can be rectified through linking
one position with various positions
Limitations of formal channel of
communication

HIERARCHY LEVEL
Executive Director
Vice President
A.G.M.
Manager
Supervisor
Forman
]
Supervisor 3Supervisor 1 Supervisor 2
Manager
Horizontal Comm.

Informal communication
• Informal communication includes instances of free and
unrestrained conversation between people who share a
casual rapport with each other.
• It requires two people to have a similar wavelength and
hence occurs between friends and family.
• It does not have any rigid rules and guidelines.
• The conversations need not necessarily have
boundaries of time, place or even subjects

Informal communication/
Grapevine communication
• It is called Grapevine communication because it
spreads throughout the organization with its
branches going out in all directions
• Grapevine transmits information from one person to
a group of persons rapidly in a cluster-chain
arrangement
Grapevine is an informal
communication, unorganized and
unofficial channel of
communication in an organization.

Cluster chain network
• Cluster chain is
made up of
individuals who act
as information
sources
• Each individual
passes information
to several others

• Informal communication performs a positive
service to the organization
• This communication operates with much speed
• It carry accurate information within ¾ hours of
time
• Communication can be distorted due to
‘filtering’ where each member of the cluster
acting as a filter passes on only the
information which he regards as important.

characteristics of grapevine (by Keith davis )
• In informal communication system people talk
most when the news is recent
• People talk about people they know
• People working near each other are likely to be
on the same grapevine
• People who contact each other in the chain of
procedure tend to be on the same grape

1. Single chain network
• Individual communicate with
other person through
intervening persons
Single
strand
Types of grapevine communication

2 Gossip
• Individual communicate non
selectively
• Gossip is different from
‘rumour’
• Rumour is grapevine
information which is
communicated without any
standard of evidence being
present.
• It is injudicious and untrue part
of the grapevine.
Contd…

3. Probability
• This network is the one,
where the individual
communicates
randomly with other
individuals according
to the law of probability
Contd…

Contd…
4. Cluster
The individual
communicate with
those individuals whom
he/she trust and have
good relationships

Limitations of grapevine
communication
• Less orderly and less static
• Sometime message are so erratic that they
may lead to some difficulty situations
• The origin and direction of the flow of
information is hard to find out
• It is difficult to assign responsibility for false
information

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
• Semantic barriers
• Psychological barriers
• Organizational barriers
• Cultural barriers
• Environmental barriers

1. Semantic barriers
• Misunderstandings in communication- same
word or symbol means different things to
different individuals.
– The obstructions caused in the process of
receiving or understanding of the message
during the process of encoding or decoding
ideas and words
– eg:- oxford dictionary contain different meanings
to nearly 500 words
BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION, cont…

• Barriers in semantic approach
–Badly expressed messages
–Faulty translations
–Unclarified assumptions
–Specialists languages

• Badly expressed messages
–Lack of clarity in a message
–Inadequate vocabulary
–Repetitions
–Failure to clarify implications
Eg:
Actual message:-hang him, not leave him
Perceived message:- Hang him not, leave him

Faulty translations
• The need for god understanding and
knowledge of linguistic patterns
Unclarified assumptions
• Though a message appears to be specific, the
assumptions which underlining the message
may not be clear.

• Specialists language
– Technical people develop special, peculiar and
technical language of their own.

Psychological barriers
• Premature evaluation
• Inattention
• Poor retention
• Undue reliance on the written word
• Distrust of communicator
• Failure to communicate

• Premature evaluation
–Tendency of prematurely evaluating
communications rather than to keep an
uncompromised positions during the
interchange.
– it can be rectified through ‘empathy’.
• Inattention
–When the receiver is preoccupied by some
other aspect it results into non-listening
from the side of the receiver

• Poor retention
–Receiver receives only part of the message
communicated to them
• Undue reliance on the written word
–Employees usually do not reply upon written
communication eg; policies, publications etc
–They believe on face to face contact and
develop fair degree of mutual trust and
confidence

• Distrust of communicator
–If sender sends ill considered judgment or
decision- make the receiver to receive
unenthusiastically and unwillingly.
• Failure to communicate
–Managers fail to communicate- laziness,
carelessness etc.

Cultural Barriers
• Illiteracy
• Level of knowledge and understanding
• Customs and beliefs
• Religion
• Attitudes
• Economic and social class difference
• Language variations
• Cultural difficulties
• Urban and rural populations

Organizational barriers
• Organizational policy
• Rules and regulations
• Status relationships
• Complexity in organization structure
• Organizational facilities

• Organizational policy
–When policy is only in the form of written
documents and not behaviour.
• Rules and regulations
–Communication through proper channel in a
specified way prescribed by rules delay it
and works against the willingness of
persons to convey the message

• Status relationships
–Positions given to the people in formal
organization structure block flow of
communication (mainly upward directions)
–It is due to greater difference in status,
positions of people etc

• Complexity in organization structure
–Larger organizations communication may
be filtered in some points.
• Organizational facilities
–Meetings, conferences, compliant box,
open door system etc are to be
maintained to know the reactions and
suggestions from the employees.

• Environmental barriers
–Noise
–Invisibility
–Congestion

Effective Communication Techniques
• Listening
• Expression
• Taking Criticism
Positively
• Avoiding Arguments
• Understanding the
Audience
• Feedback

Tips to Establish an Effective
Communication Cycle
• For the Sender
• Before the message is sent, the sender must be
clear on what he wishes to communicate. If the
sender lacks clarity of thought, the message that
he creates will obviously reflect this.
• The sender has to give a lot of thought to the
target of his message. This will help him to
formulate the message in a manner that is most
appropriate.

• Choosing the right means of communication
must be the next priority of the sender.
• Having formulated the message and chosen a
method of communication, the sender has to
dispatch the message at the appropriate time,
and ensure that the target has received it.
Communication Cycle, contd…

• For the Receiver
• The receiver's foremost duty is to lend the
message its due attention.
• In case of an audio message, the receiver must
listen to it with utmost concentration, as the
thinking speed tends to overshadow the ability to
listen. It would help to take notes or listen to the
message more than once.
• Use all abilities to decode the message.

• In case the receiver encounters any doubt, he is
advised to get it clarified from the sender, instead of
interpreting it in an incorrect manner.
• Once the message is completely decoded, the receiver
has to begin formulating the feedback.
• The correct channel of communication must be
chosen to send the feedback, and it must reach the
sender on time.
• The cycle of communication is complete with the
sender receiving the feedback.

Characteristics of effective
communications
Effective communication requires the MESSAGE
to be:
• Clear and concise
• Accurate
• Relevant to the needs of the receiver
• Timely
• Meaningful
• Applicable to the situation

Effective communication requires the
SENDER to:
• Know the subject well
• Be interested in the subject
• Know the audience members and establish a
rapport with them
• Speak at the level of the receiver
• Choose an appropriate communication channel
communications

The channel should be:
• Appropriate
• Affordable
• Appealing
communications

The receiver should:
• Be aware, interested, and willing to accept
the message
• Listen attentively
• Understand the value of the message
• Provide feedback
communications

communicator
An effective verbal
communicator:
• Clarifies
• Listens
• Encourages
empathically
• Acknowledges
• Restates/repeats
An effective nonverbal
communicator:
• Relaxes
• Opens up
• Leans toward the other
person
• Establishes eye contact
• Shows appropriate
facial expressions

COMMUNICATION
• Communication in the
workplace is critical to
establishing and
maintaining quality
working relationships
in organizations.

Are We Getting the Message Across?
James Warick, Director of Physical Plant at Southern Hospital, e-mailed
Diane Curtis, Director of Nursing, informing her of a leak in Operating
Room 1 that must be shut down for repairs early next morning. Curtis
forwarded the message to Joanne Messing, the operating room nurse
supervisor
on duty for the night shift. Messing, tired from a long night’s work,
handwrote a message and taped it on the bulletin board to the nurse
supervisor
in the day shift to switch the 8 a.m. operation from Room 1 to
Room 8. David Swanson, the day shift nurse supervisor, arrived at 7:30
a.m. and found Dr. Roberts shouting that his patient was ready for
surgery, but no rooms were available because Dr. Jones had already taken
Room 8.

Discussion Questions
1. What were the channels of communication used by each
person?
2. Should a different channel of communication have been
used instead?
3. What can be done to resolve the problem?
4. What future policies should be put in place to prevent this
from occurring
again?

Communication

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