1. Assignment on
Existence of Local Government in Bengal before
British Period, a Historical Analysis Starting from
Vedic Age
Date of Submission: 04 October 2016
Submitted To
Lecturer
Arjuman Naziz
Dept. of Public administration
Jahangirnagar University
Submitted By
Md. Asiful Islam
Roll No: 760
Dept. of Public administration
Jahangirnagar University

2. Introduction: Local government is a form of public administration which, in a
majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within a given state.
The term is used to contrast with offices at state level, which are referred to as the
central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal
government and also to supranational government which deals with governing
institutions between states. Local governments generally act within powers
delegated to them by legislation or directives of the higher level of government. In
federal states, local government generally comprises the third (or sometimes
fourth) tier of government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually
occupies the second or third tier of government, often with greater powers than
higher-level administrative divisions. Here we will explore the local government
term in Bengal regime from Vedic period till the British colonial period both from
rural and urban perspective.
Types of Local Government in Bangladesh: Two types of local government exist
in Bangladesh. Like, (1) Rural Government & (2) Urban Government.
In ancient societies there were three types of local government. First one was the
only form of government where no central authority existed. The second one was
that where the central government was powerful, local government played a
secondary role and the last one was that where local government competed with
the centre for power and authority. It is assumed that local government was the
basic form of government in the subcontinent till the 6th century B.C. when large
kingdoms came into being and local government started playing second fiddle to
the central authority.
How Local Government Exists in Bengal before British Period, a Historical
Analysis Starting from Vedic Age-
Vedic period (1500 - 1000 B.C.): The original home of the Aryans is a debatable
question and there are several views. Different scholars have identified different
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic region,
Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the
Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations. However, the
theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and widely accepted by
historians. From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans.
They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.

3. In that period the basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Several
families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.
The leader of grama was known as gramani. A group of villages constituted a
larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati. The highest political unit was
called jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic
period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was
called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the
succession was hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani
or commander of the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies
called the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of elders
and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people, (Ramachandran, 2010)
Again founded that “at the royal consecration, the king's entourage consisted of a
Grdmani, a Suta (charioteer), and a Bhagdugha (collector of taxes).” (Zamora,
1965, p. 263)
So we can summarize religions and moral philosophies arose over the centuries not
only as explanations for our earthly existence, but also as strategies for regulating
the distribution of political power, a strong correlation between religion and power.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) The Aryans further moved towards east in
the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana means the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned
in the later Vedic literature. One important development during this period is the
growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the
beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom.
Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi
and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru.
Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by
scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India –
Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha
(southern India), (Ramachandran, 2010)
Here we can’t visualize the exact geographical area of Bengal regime but the term
Gangetic plains of east revoke us to think dialectically. A concept of
decentralization, however is foreseen in terms of development.

4. The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers
like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and
preached their ideas in this century. In India, the republican institutions were
strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the
orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most successful
were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable.
Jainism: This ideology taught human race the three principles of Jainism, also
known as Triratnas (threegems), are: right faith, knowledge and conduct. Right
conduct resulted in not to injure life, lie, steal, acquire property, lead immoral life.
These terms are often settled and reserved by the local government of today’s
system of administration and law, (Directorates of School Education, 2015, p.
39)
Buddhism: The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great
kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi,
Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka,
Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. The Anga matches with the late Bengal territory,
(Directorates of School Education, 2015, p. 40)
Anga: The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan
peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly
corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of
Bengal.
Anga’s capital Champa, formerly known as Malini, was located on the right bank
of river Ganga, near its junction with river Champa. It was a flourishing city,
referred to as one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was a
great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant
Suvarnabhumi. Other important cities of Anga were said to
be Assapura and Bhadrika. Bimbisara (558 B.C.E. — 491 B.C.E.) the crown
prince of Magadha, had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga, and
seized Champa. Bimbisara made it his headquarters and ruled over it as his father's
Viceroy. Anga then became an integral part of the expanding Magadha,
(Newworldencyclopedia, 2015)
Here, aforementioned area symbolizes the entity of the term Urban, different from
Rural, so cities were formed and shaped on the basis of economy, trade and
communication. Prince as a viceroy of king, independent as a ruler but accountable

5. to superior authority makes a blur cohesion of today’s local government with
central government.
Maurya Empire (320-180 BC): Village administration during this period, was
closely linked with agriculture. The village size ranged from 100 to 500 families.
Boundaries were demarcated by river, hill, forest, ditches, tanks, bunds, and trees
situated at one or two krosha (1 krosha equals 2 miles) presumably for mutual
protection with neighboring villages." The following officials composed the village
administrative staff: (1) the headman (Adhyaksha), (2) the accountant
(Samkhayaka), (3) village officials of different grades (Sthanikas), (4) the village
couriers (Jamgha karika), and (5) the veterinary doctor t Anikastha), In addition,
the Chikitsaka (in charge of sanitation) and the Ashwa-damak (horse trainer) were
also village officials. All these functionaries were given land free of rent and taxes
but they were 110t allowed to sell or mortgage the land." Vidyalankar cites the
degree of governmental control over the village. He writes that despite
Chandragupta's vast empire and centralized regime, he never interfered much with
the village administration. The village, therefore, remained a self-governed unit
under the Mauryas. A sketch of village life during this period is illuminating.
Every village had its own Sabha (assembly) which debated all matters relating to
the village; rules helpful to the entire community were framed, and the offenders
were punished through regular trials and judgments. The Sabha was the centre of
the multifarious activities of the village. It discussed religious and social matters. It
arranged numerous types of entertainments. The Sabha met under a shady tree ...
Representatives of village families, the elders, and other experienced folk gathered
there. The Indian people lived independently in these self-governing village
republics. Even during the post-Mauryan period known as the II dark period"-200
B.C. to 00 A.D.-the village continued to be the 'smallest unit of administration in
which the headman, assisted by the council of elders, still played a prominent
role," (Zamora, 1965, p. 265)
Provincial and Local Administration
The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila,
Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial governors were mostly appointed
from the members of royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law
and order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district administration was
under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to modern
collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village
administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called

6. Gopa who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages. Both Kautilya and Megasthanes
provided the system of Municipal administration. Arthasastra contains a full
chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members
each to look after the administration of Pataliputra. These committees looked after:
1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3. Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade 5.
Manufacture and sale of goods 6. Collection of sales tax, (Directorates of School
Education, 2015, p. 68)
Municipal Administration: Megasthenes in his book gives a detailed account of
the excellent municipal arrangements which prevailed at the imperial capital,
Patalipurta. The affairs of the imperial city were carried by a committee of 30
members. The committee did all that a municipal committee does today. It looks
after the road medical relief, sanitation, water supply, public building and gardens.
Those who violated the municipal rules were severely punished. The committee
was divided by six standing committees or boards of five members each. 1. The
first board is board of labor. It fixed wages, enforced laws for sound materials and
looked after the artisans. It supervised handicrafts also. 2. The second board
protected the interest of foreigners, it looked after their comfort providing their
accommodations. 3. The third board maintained a register of vital statistics. 4. The
forth board supervised trade and commerce. 5. The fifth board of industries
supervised manufactures and sale of commodities. 6. The final board collected
Tithes (a tax of one tenth on all goods sold in the city) (Barber, 1984, p. 123)
It suppose that the municipal administration of the large cities in that time followed
the lines of Pataliputra. There was an officer named Nagaraka equal to a modern
executive officer. From this way we may conclude that urban life in fourth century,
B.C. was very well organized. Thus rural local government was present there
slightly.
Gupta Administration (320 C.E.-550 C.E.)
According inscriptions, the Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka,
Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin. The king was assisted
in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or
commandeering- chief of the army and other important officials. A high official
called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions, most probably
minister for foreign affairs. The king maintained a close contact with the provincial
administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.

7. Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as
Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were
subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara
Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages in the
district were under the control of Gramikas. Fahien’s account on the Gupta
administration provides useful information. He characterizes the Gupta
administration as mild and benevolent. There were no restrictions on people’s
movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no
state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe. Imposing a
fine was a common punishment. There was no spy system. The administration was
so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of
thieves. He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were
negligible. Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration
as he was able to travel without any fear throughout the Gangetic valley. On the
whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas, (Directorates
of School Education, 2015, p. 103)
Bangle regime was in regime was under Chandragupta I and Samundragupta rule
in Magadha and Kalinga according to map.
The village government under the Guptas was, in many respects, .similar to that of
the Maurya period." The village, both in northern and southern India, had the
traditional leaders. The headman and the accountant were still active and, ill
addition, the watchman also helped in the administration. Altekar describes that:
The village administration was in charge of a headman designated as a Grameyaka
or as a Gramadhyaksha. He had a clerk to work under him to keep the records. The
headman was assisted in his work by a non-official council. The village councils
were known as Janapadas in the Gupta administration. The main responsibilities of
the village Council were defense, settlement of communal disputes, collection of
revenues, organization of public works, and acting as a trustee for minors," The
councils in South India especially performed a major role in social affairs, revenue
collection, assessment, public works, wasteland management and settlement of
disputes. On the judicial function, II justice was administered by royal officials
with the help of the, village councilor assembly. In certain cases the assembly
alone sat in judgment and passed sentence." (Zamora, 1965, p. 266)
In summary, the village headman and the accountant, both prominent officials in
the Vedic and Mauryan periods, continued an important part in village
administration during the Gupta period, Although, the village council took various

8. forms but it retained most of its earlier functions. Therefore we can claim that there
were a strong rural local government rather than urban local government.
Harsha’s Administration (590 C.E. - 647 C.E.)
The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did.
Hiuen Tsang gives a detailed picture about this. The king was just in his
administration and punctual in discharging his duties. He made frequent visits of
inspection throughout his dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation was
also light and forced labor was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as
land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of
Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha’s
army consisted of the traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant.
The number of cavalry was more than one lakh and the elephants more than sixty
thousands. This was much more than that of the Mauryan army. The maintenance
of public records was the salient feature of Harsha’s administration. The archive of
the Harsha period was known as Nilopitu and it was under the control of special
officers. Both good and bad events happened during his time had been recorded.
(Directorates of School Education, 2015, p. 103)
Provinces were under viceroys elected from the royal family. Provinces were
consisted of number of divisions and divisions were consisted of number of
districts. The local level government were accountable to the supreme Harsha.
(Barber, 1984, p. 146)
Bengal regime was under Karna Suvarna area in that time. In that time public
record is introduced with privacy by executives. We have the same type of facility
as a citizen today for sure. Local government bodies provide us birth certificate in
modern time, an evolved form of pre-medieval period. Election was present but not
in a fully-fledged criterion of democracy, as viceroys got nomination only from
royal family. The term local government in urban as well as rural were in a
superficial portrait.
Sultanate of Bengal (1205 C.E. - 1576 C.E.): The Bengal Sultanate governed its
territories through a network of administrative centers known as Mint Towns.
These towns hosted a mint which produced the taka. They were district
headquarters and contributed to urbanization. They received migrants from other
parts of the Muslim world, including North India, Central Asia and the Middle
East.

9. Figure: administrative centers (Wikipedia, 2016)
Local government system in Sultanate in Bengal:
Founded in stone writings, coins and deeds the divisions of administration-
 Iklim- Muazzamabad, Mokababad
 Arshaha- Shajlamankhabad, Srihot
 Town- Laubela, Shimlabad
 Thana- Laur, Laubela
 Mohol- Hadigar, Jormohor
 Khitta- Laukhanti
 Kosba- Laukhanti
Administrative units: Hierarchy-
Iklim/Arshaha
Shik
Mohol/Thana/Kosba/Khitta
Village
(Karim, 2007, p. 38)

10. There was a well-defined administrative structure including both rural and urban
level institution though in modern period these are categorized differently. We can
see that there was a top-down administration approach in that period. Today
military department has nothing to do with civil administration unlike Sultanate
regime.
The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320C.E.-1414C.E.)
The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his administration. He strictly
followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration. He pleased the
nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the Iqta system
was not only revived but also it was made hereditary. As per the Islamic law he
levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims. He was the first
Sultan to impose irrigation tax. But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and
wells. The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another
canal was between Yamuna and Hissar. There were about 1200 fruit gardens in
and around Delhi yielding more revenue. The special tax on 28 items was
abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law. He also developed royal
factories called Karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed. About
300 new towns were built during his reign. The famous among them was
Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla. Old monuments
like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired. A new department called
Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and widows. Free hospitals
and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established. Firoz patronized
scholars like Barani and Afif. As he was guided by the ulemas, he was intolerant
towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and
imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and
Aurangazeb. Also he increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated
soldiers and young persons. In his regime the number of slaves had increased to
one lakh eighty thousand. When Firoz died in 1388 the struggle for power between
the Sultan and the nobles started once again. His successors had to face the
rebellion of the slaves created by Firoz, (Directorates of School Education, 2015,
p. 184)

11. IQTA means a town or a tract comprising some villages. Heterogeneous provinces
were controlled by IQTA, WALI and MUKTI. Wali means bureaucratic governor
as Islam term, (Agha, 1976, p. 537)
IQTA was administered by Mukta, is a military post having civil power too.
Provinces were controlled by central government, (Karim, 2007, p. 20)
We can conclude that in that period towns were existed, a sketch of Urban local
government, accountable to the central government. Grading of citizen were
present in that time on the basis of religion, indeed a negative example of
administration.
Mughal Dynasty (1576 C.E. – 1757 C.E.): When the Mughals came to India in
1526, the country was divided against itself. However, despite the lack of unified
authority, the Mughals found the village administrative set-up in the' country still
vigorous and healthy. The traditional officers, headman, accountant, and
watchman, were active and the village, continued to be the basic unit of
administration and it was little altered by the vicissitudes of Mughal, Mahratta ...
rule. Each village had a number of hereditary native officials. The most important
was the headman, usually referred to as the Patel, who collected the revenue and in
Madras was a petty magistrate and civil judge; the Patwin, or accountant) in charge
of the village accounts) registers of holdings) and records connected with the land
revenues; and the Chowkidar, or watchman, the rural policeman. This feeling is
shared by Majumdan and his associates", Samant's view on the judicial aspect of
the Panchayats is that the village council Muslim rule had the support of the state
because "when Muhammadan interests were involved, the decision of a Panchayat
was enforced by the ruling monarch which is a sufficient proof to show that the
power of the State was always behind the village councils." (Zamora, 1965, p.
267)
It can thus be inferred that the administrative structure as well as the spirit of the
Panchayats remained basically intact from Vedic period through Mauryan and
Gupta periods up to the end of Mughal rule in India. The headman, the accountant,
and the watchman, still carried on their traditional duties. This age long state of
stable village government and time tested village Panchayat was rudely shaken
with the advent of the British dominance of India, a period now to be explored.
Historians reckon the beginning of medieval period with the establishment of
Turko-Afghan rule in Bengal from the early 13th century. It is believed by many,
but disputed by others, that administration of villages in medieval times was left to

12. the Panchayets. Each village had its own council or Panchayet. It appointed or
elected its own headman who served as a link between the village and the
government. The headman collected revenue from the cultivators and forwarded
the same to the treasury. He was answerable for delays in revenue collection. A
Patwari or village accountant working under the supervision of the headman used
to keep records of crops and revenue. The Panchayets were generally entrusted
with the task of looking after education, irrigation, religious practices and moral
conduct of the villagers. Holding fairs and festivals, maintenance of law and order
were also their functions. It seems that revenue collection became more organized
during the Mughal period and local administration was more geared up to that end.
Thus, during the Mughal rule, Sarkar/Chakla and Pargana emerged as the focal
point of revenue and general administration. Secondly, during the medieval period,
there is no evidence of local consultation through the council system; it was quite
simply a top-down administration consisting of the extension of central authority
into the local areas. These two characteristics are likely to have undermined the
authority of whatever self-government was prevailing at the village level. During
the medieval period, particularly under the Mughals, the town gained importance
in Bengal. The Mughals were essentially an urban people, and their most
remarkable contribution in respect of local government was in the urban areas. The
office of Kotwal was developed as the cornerstone of the municipal organization
during this period. Appointed under a Sanad of the Emperor, the Kotwal was a
person of high status; law and order was his first responsibility, and he used to
maintain a body of horses, city guards and a group of spies. Almost every sphere of
city life was under his responsibility.
Conclusion: Man who lives in a world of peril is compelled to seek for safety. The
way most familiar to us is the control of nature. We build houses, weave garments,
make flame and electricity, our friends instead of our enemies and develop the
complicated art of social living. This is the method of changing the world through
action. Yet there is another method, the method of changing the self in emotion
and idea because it is too difficult to change the world. These words are from
several scholars what they delivered theoretically as explanation. There is a
discrepancy between theory and practice. Therefore, it is not certain what we have
got from aforementioned discussion.

13. References:
[1]. Directorates of School Education (2015) HISTORY Higher Secondary - First
Year. 9th
Ed, College Road, Chennai-600 006, Tamilnadu Textbook and
Educational Services Corporation
[2]. Barber, E. (1984) The Instant Encyclopedia of the History of India, New Delhi,
Deep and Deep Publications.
[3]. Agha, M.H. (1976) Tughlaq Dynasty, New Delhi, S. Chand & Co. (pvt) Ltd.
[4]. Karim, M.A. (2007) Banglar Proshashon Bebosthar Itihash, Dhaka,
Shuchipatra Publications
[5]. Zamora, M.D. (1965) A HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF INDIAN
VILLAGE AUTONOMY. Asian Studies [Online] Available from:
asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-02-1965/Zamora.pdf.
[Accessed: 28th
September 2016].
[6]. Ramachandran (2010) INDIAN ADMINISTRATION IN VEDIC PERIOD.
Hubpages [Online] Available from: http://hubpages.com/education/INDIAN-
ADMINISTRATION-IN-VEDIC-PERIOD.
[Accessed: 28th
September 2016].
[7]. Wikipedia, [Online] Available from:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire
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[Accessed: 28th
September 2016].
[8]. Newworldencuclopedia, [Online] Available from:
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mahajanapada
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September 2016].