brief about sound

1. Sound
Longitudinal Waves
Pressure Graphs
Speed of Sound
Wavefronts
Frequency & Pitch
(human range)
The Human Ear
Sonar & Echolocation
Doppler Effect
(and sonic booms)
Interference
Standing Waves in a String:
Two fixed ends
Standing Waves in a Tube:
One open end
Two open ends
Musical Instruments
(and other complex sounds)
Beats
Intensity
Sound Level (decibels)

2. Longitudinal Waves
As you learned in the unit on waves, in a longitudinal wave the
particles in a medium travel back & forth parallel to the wave itself.
Sound waves are longitudinal and they can travel through most any
medium, so molecules of air (or water, etc.) move back & forth in the
direction of the wave creating high pressure zones (compressions) and
low pressure zones (rarefactions). The molecules act just like the
individual coils in the spring. The faster the molecules move back &
forth, the greater the frequency of the wave, and the greater distance
they move, the greater the wave’s amplitude.
wavelength, λ
Animation
rarefaction compression
molecule

3. Sound Waves: Molecular View
When sound travels through a medium, there are alternating regions of
high and low pressure. Compressions are high pressure regions where
the molecules are crowded together. Rarefactions are low pressure
regions where the molecules are more spread out. An individual
molecule moves side to side with each compression. The speed at
which a compression propagates through the medium is the wave
speed, but this is different than the speed of the molecules themselves.
wavelength, λ

4. Pressure vs. Position
The pressure at a given point in a medium fluctuates slightly as sound
waves pass by. The wavelength is determined by the distance between
consecutive compressions or consecutive rarefactions. At each com-
pression the pressure is a tad bit higher than its normal pressure. At
each rarefaction the pressure is a tad bit lower than normal. Let’s call
the equilibrium (normal) pressure P0 and the difference in pressure from
equilibrium ∆P. ∆P varies and is at a max at a compression or
rarefaction. In a fluid like air or water, ∆Pmax is typically very small
compared to P0 but our ears are very sensitive to slight deviations in
pressure. The bigger ∆P is, the greater the amplitude of the sound
wave, and the louder the sound. wavelength, λ

5. B
Pressure vs.
Position Graph
∆P
x
A
C
A: ∆P = 0; P = P0
B: ∆P > 0; P = Pmax
C: ∆P < 0; P = Pmin
λ
animation

6. Pressure vs. Time
The pressure at a given point does not stay constant. If we only
observed one position we would find the pressure there varies
sinusoidally with time, ranging from:
P0 to P0 + ∆Pmax back to P0 then to P0 - ∆Pmax and back to P0
The time it takes to go through this cycle is the period of the wave.
The number of times this cycle happens per second is the frequency
of the wave in Hertz.
Therefore, the pressure in the medium is a function of both position
and time!
The cycle can also be described as:
equilibrium → compression → equilibrium → rarefaction → equilibrium

7. Pressure vs. Time Graph
∆P T
t
Rather than looking at a region of space at an instant in time, here we’re
looking at just one point in space over an interval of time. At time zero,
when the pressure readings began, the molecules were at their normal
pressure. The pressure at this point in space fluctuates sinusoidally as
the waves pass by: normal → high → normal → low → normal. The
time needed for one cycle is the period. The higher the frequency, the
shorter the period. The amplitude of the graph represents the maximum
deviation from normal pressure (as it did on the pressure vs. position
graph), and this corresponds to loudness.

8. Comparison of Pressure Graphs
Pressure vs. Position: The graph is for a snapshot in time and
displays pressure variation for over an interval of space. The
distance between peaks on the graph is the wavelength of the wave.
Pressure vs. Time: The graph displays pressure variation over an
interval of time for only one point in space. The distance between
peaks on the graph is the period of the wave. The reciprocal of the
period is the frequency.
Both Graphs: Sound waves are longitudinal even though these graphs
look like transverse waves. Nothing in a sound wave is actually
waving in the shape of these graphs! The amplitude of either graph
corresponds to the loudness of the sound. The absolute pressure
matters not. For loudness, all that matters is how much the pressure
deviates from its norm, which doesn’t have to be much. In real life
the amplitude would diminish as the sound waves spread out.

9. Speed of Sound
As with all waves, the speed of sound depends on the medium
through which it is traveling. In the wave unit we learned that the
speed of a wave traveling on a rope is given by:
F
µ
v =
F = tension in rope
µ = mass per unit length of rope
In a rope, waves travel faster when the rope is under more tension and
slower if the rope is denser. The speed of a sound wave is given by:
Rope:
B
ρ
v =Sound:
B = bulk modulus of medium
ρ = mass per unit volume (density)
The bulk modulus, B, of a medium basically tells you how hard it is
to compress it, just as the tension in a rope tells you how hard it is
stretch it or displace a piece of it. (continued)

10. Speed of Sound (cont.)
F
µ
v =
B
ρ
v =
Rope:
Sound:
Notice that each equation is in the form
The bulk modulus for air is tiny compared to that of water, since air
is easily compressed and water nearly incompressible. So, even
though water is much denser than air, water is so much harder to
compress that sound travels over 4 times faster in water.
Steel is almost 8 times denser than water, but it’s over 70 times
harder to compress. Consequently, sound waves propagate through
steel about 3 times faster than in water, since (70 / 8)0.5
≈ 3.
v =
elastic property
inertial property

11. Mach Numbers
Depending on temp, sound travels around 750 mph, which would
be Mach 1. Twice this speed would be Mach 2, which is about the
max speed for the F-22 Raptor.
Speed Racer drives a car called “The Mach 5,” which would imply
it can go 5 times the speed of sound.

12. Temperature & the Speed of Sound
The speed of sound in dry air is given by:
v ≈ 331.4 + 0.60 T, where T is air temp in°C.
Because the speed of sound is inversely proportional
to the medium’s density, the less dense the medium,
the faster sound travels. The hotter a substance is,
B
ρ
v =
the faster its molecules/atoms vibrate and the more room they take up.
This lowers the substance’s density, which is significant in a gas. So,
in the summer, sound travels slightly faster outside than it does in the
winter. To visualize this keep in mind that molecules must bump into
each other in order to transmit a longitudinal wave. When molecules
move quickly, they need less time to bump into their neighbors.
Here are speeds for sound:
Air, 0 °C: 331 m/s Air, 20 °C: 343 m/s Water, 25 °C: 1493 m/s
Iron: 5130 m/s Glass (Pyrex): 5640 m/s Diamond: 12000 m/s

13. Wavefronts
Some waves are one dimensional, like vibrations in a guitar string or
sound waves traveling along a metal rod. Some waves are two
dimensional, such as surface water waves or seismic waves traveling
along the surface of the Earth. Some waves are 3-D, such as sound
traveling in all directions from a bell, or light doing the same from a
flashlight. To visualize 2-D and 3-D waves, we often draw
wavefronts. The red wavefronts below could represent the crest of
water waves on a pond moving outward after a rock was dropped in
the middle. They could also be used to represent high pressure
zonesin sound waves. The wavefronts for 3-D sound waves would be
spherical, but concentric circles are often used to simplify the picture.
If the wavefronts are evenly spaced, then λ is a constant.
crest
trough
Animation

14. Frequency & Pitch
Just as the amplitude of a sound wave relates to its loudness, the
frequency of the wave relates to its pitch. The higher the pitch, the
higher the frequency. The frequency you hear is just the number of
wavefronts that hit your eardrums in a unit of time. Wavelength
doesn’t necessarily correspond to pitch because, even if wavefronts
are very close together, if the wave is slow moving, not many
wavefronts will hit you each second. Even in a fast moving wave
with a small wavelength, the receiver or source could be moving,
which would change the frequency, hence the pitch.
Frequency ↔ Pitch
Amplitude ↔ Loudness
Listen to a pure tone (up to 1000 Hz)
Listen to 2 simultaneous tones (scroll down)

15. The Human Ear
Animation Ear Anatomy
The exterior part of the ear (the auricle, or pinna) is made of cartilage
and helps funnel sound waves into the auditory canal, which has wax
fibers to protect the ear from dirt. At the end of the auditory canal lies
the eardrum (tympanic membrane), which vibrates with the incoming
sound waves and transmits these vibrations along three tiny bones
(ossicles) called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup (malleus, incus, and
stapes). The little stapes bone is attached to the oval window, a
membrane of the cochlea.
The cochlea is a coil that converts the vibrations it receives into
electrical impulses and sends them to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Delicate hairs (stereocilia) in the cochlea are responsible for this signal
conversion. These hairs are easily damaged by loud noises, a major
cause of hearing loss!
The semicircular canals help maintain balance, but do not aid hearing.

16. Range of Human Hearing
Hear the full range of audible frequencies
(scroll down to speaker buttons)
The maximum range of frequencies for most people is from about
20 to 20 thousand hertz. This means if the number of high pressure
fronts (wavefronts) hitting our eardrums each second is from 20 to
20 000, then the sound may be detectable. If you listen to loud
music often, you’ll probably find that your range (bandwidth) will
be diminished.
Some animals, like dogs and some fish, can hear frequencies that are
higher than what humans can hear (ultrasound). Bats and dolphins
use ultrasound to locate prey (echolocation). Doctors make use of
ultrasound for imaging fetuses and breaking up kidney stones.
Elephants and some whales can communicate over vast distances
with sound waves too low in pitch for us to hear (infrasound).

17. Echoes & Reverberation
Animation
An echo is simply a reflected sound wave. Echoes are more
noticeable if you are out in the open except for a distant, large
object. If went out to the dessert and yelled, you might hear a
distant canyon yell back at you. The time between your yell and
hearing your echo depends on the speed of sound and on the
distance to the to the canyon. In fact, if you know the speed of
sound, you can easily calculate the distance just by timing the delay
of your echo.
Reverberation is the repeated reflection of sound at close quarters.
If you were to yell while inside a narrow tunnel, your reflected
sound waves would bounce back to your ears so quickly that your
brain wouldn’t be able to distinguish between the original yell and
its reflection. It would sound like a single yell of slightly longer
duration.

18. Sonar
SOund NAvigation and Ranging
In addition to locating prey, bats and dolphins use sound waves
for navigational purposes. Submarines do this too. The
principle is to send out sound waves and listen for echoes. The
longer it takes an echo to return, the farther away the object that
reflected those waves. Sonar is used in commercial fishing boats
to find schools of fish. Scientists use it to map the ocean floor.
Special glasses that make use of sonar can help blind people by
producing sounds of different pitches depending on how close an
obstacle is.
If radio (low frequency light)
waves are used instead of sound
in an instrument, we call it radar
(radio detection and ranging).

19. Doppler Effect
Animation (click on “The Doppler
Effect”, then click on the button marked:
A tone is not always heard at the same frequency at which it is
emitted. When a train sounds its horn as it passes by, the pitch of
the horn changes from high to low. Any time there is relative
motion between the source of a sound and the receiver of it, there is
a difference between the actual frequency and the observed
frequency. This is called the Doppler effect. Click to hear effect:
The Doppler effect applied to electomagnetic waves helps
meteorologists to predict weather, allows astronomers to estimate
distances to remote galaxies, and aids police officers catch you
speeding.
The Doppler effect applied to ultrasound is used by doctors to
measure the speed of blood in blood vessels, just like a cop’s radar
gun. The faster the blood cell are moving toward the doc, the greater
the reflected frequency.

20. Sonic Booms
Wavefront Animations Another cool animation
Animation with sound (click on “The Doppler Effect”, then click on
the button marked:
Movie: F-18 Hornet breaking the sound barrier (click on MPEG
movie)
When a source of sound is moving at the speed of sound, the
wavefronts pile up on top of each other. This makes their
combined amplitude very large, resulting in a shock wave and a
sonic boom. At supersonic speeds a “Mach cone” is formed. The
faster the source compared to sound, the smaller the shock wave
angle will be.

21. Doppler
Equation
fL = fS
v ± vL
v ± vS
)(
fL = frequency as heard by a listener
fS = frequency produced by the source
v = speed of sound in the medium
vL = speed of the listener
vS = speed of the source
This equation takes into account the speed of the source of the
sound, as well as the listener’s speed, relative to the air (or
whatever the medium happens to be). The only tricky part is the
signs. First decide whether the motion will make the observed
frequency higher or lower. (If the source is moving toward the
listener, this will increase fL, but if the listener is moving away
from the source, this will decrease fL.) Then choose the plus or
minus as appropriate. A plus sign in the numerator will make fL
bigger, but a plus in the denominator will make fL smaller.
Examples are on the next slide.

22. Doppler Set-ups fL = fS
v ± vL
v ± vS
)(
still10 m/s
fL = 1000
343
343 -10 )(
= 1030 Hz
The horn is producing a pure 1000 Hz tone. Let’s find the frequency as
heard by the listener in various motion scenarios. The speed of sound
in air at 20 °C is 343 m/s.
still
10 m/s
fL = 1000
343 + 10
343 )(
= 1029 Hz
Note that these situation are not exactly symmetric.
Also, in real life a horn does not produce a single tone.
More examples on the next slide.

23. 3 m/s
Doppler Set-ups
(cont.)
fL = fS
v ± vL
v ± vS
)(
10 m/s
fL = 1000
343 - 3
343 -10 )(
= 1021 Hz
The horn is still producing a pure 1000 Hz tone. This time both the
source and the listener are moving with respect to the air.
fL = 1000
343 + 3
343 - 10 )(
= 1039 Hz
10 m/s 3 m/s
Note the when they’re moving toward each other, the highest
frequency possible for the given speeds is heard. Continued . . .

24. 10 m/s
10 m/s
3 m/s
Doppler Set-ups
(cont.)
fL = fS
v ± vL
v ± vS
)(
fL = 1000
343 - 3
343 + 10 )(
= 963 Hz
The horn is still producing a pure 1000 Hz tone. Here are the final
two motion scenarios.
fL = 1000
343 + 3
343 + 10 )(
= 980 Hz
3 m/s
Note the when they’re moving toward each other, the highest
frequency possible for the given speeds is heard. Continued . . .

25. Doppler Problem
Mr. Magoo & Betty Boop are heading toward each other. Mr. Magoo
drives at 21 m/s and toots his horn (just for fun; he doesn’t actually see
her). His horn sounds at 650 Hz. How fast should Betty drive so that
she hears the horn at 750 Hz? Assume the speed o’ sound is 343 m/s.
21 m/s vL
fL = fS
v ± vL
v ± vS
)( 750 = 650
343 + vL
343 - 21 )(
vL = 28.5 m/s

26. Interference
As we saw in the wave presentation, waves can passes through each
other and combine via superposition. Sound is no exception. The
pic shows two sets of wavefronts, each from a point source of sound.
(The frequencies are the same here, but this is not required for
interference.) Wherever constructive interference happens, a listener
will here a louder sound. Loudness is diminished where destructive
interference occurs.
A
B
C
A: 2 crests meet;
constructive interference
B: 2 troughs meet;
constructive interference
C: Crest meets trough;
destructive interference

27. Interference: Distance in Wavelengths
We’ve got two point sources emitting the same wavelength. If the
difference in distances from the listener to the point sources is a
multiple of the wavelength, constructive interference will occur.
Examples: Point A is 3 λ from the red center and 4 λ from the green
center, a difference of 1 λ. For B, the difference is zero. Since 1 and
0 are whole numbers, constructive interference happens at these
points. If the difference in distance is an odd multiple of half the
A
B
C
wavelength, destructive
interference occurs. Example:
Point C is 3.5 λ from the green
center and 2λ from the red
center. The difference is 1.5 λ ,
so destructive interference
occurs there.
Animation

28. Interference: Sound Demo
Listen to a pure tone (up to 1000 Hz)
Using the link below you can play the same tone from each of
your two computer speakers. If they were visible, the
wavefronts would look just as it did on the last slide, except
they would be spheres instead of circles. You can experience
the interference by leaning side to side from various places in
the room. If you do this, you should hear the loudness
fluctuate. This is because your head is moving through points
of constructive interference (loud spots) and destructive
interference (quiet regions, or “dead spots”). Turning one
speaker off will eliminate this effect, since there will be no
interference.

29. Interference: Noise Reduction
Noise reduction graphic (Scroll down to “Noise
Cancellation” under the “Applications of Sound” heading.)
The concept of interference is used to reduce noise. For
example, some pilots where special headphones that analyze
engine noise and produce the inverse of those sounds. This
waves produced by the headphones interfere destructively
with the sound waves coming from the engine. As a result,
the noise is reduced, but other sounds can still be heard, since
the engine noise has a distinctive wave pattern, and only
those waves are being cancelled out.

30. Acoustics
Acoustics sometimes refers to the science of sound. It can
also refer to how well sounds traveling in enclosed spaces can
be heard. The Great Hall in the Krannert Center is an
example of excellent acoustics. Chicago Symphony Orchestra
has even recorded there. Note how the walls and ceiling are
beveled to get sound waves reflect in different directions.
This minimizes the odds of there being a “dead spot”
somewhere in the audience.
scroll down to zoom in on the Great Hall pic.

31. Standing Waves: 2 Fixed Ends
When a guitar string of length L is plucked, only certain frequencies
can be produced, because only certain wavelengths can sustain
themselves. Only standing waves persist. Many harmonics can
exist at the same time, but the fundamental (n = 1) usually dominates.
As we saw in the wave presentation, a standing wave occurs when a
wave reflects off a boundary and interferes with itself in such a way
as to produce nodes and antinodes. Destructive interference always
occurs at a node. Both types occur at an antinode; they alternate.
Animation: Harmonics 1, 2, & 3
n = 1 (fundamental)
Node Antinode
n = 2

32. Wavelength
Formula:
2 Fixed Ends
(string of length L)
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
λ = 2 L
λ = L
λ = L2
3
n = 4
λ = L1
2
Notice the pattern is of
the form:
2 L
n
λ =
Thus, only certain wave-
lengths can exists. To
obtain tones corresponding
to other wavelengths, one
must press on the string
to change its length.
where n = 1, 2, 3, ….

33. Vibrating String
Example
Schmedrick decides to build his own ukulele. One of the four
strings has a mass of 20 g and a length of 38 cm. By turning the
little knobby, Schmed cranks up the tension in this string to 300 N.
What frequencies will this string produced when plucked? Hints:
1. Calculate the string’s mass per unit length, µ:
2. How the speed of a wave traveling on this string using the
formula v = F/µ from last chapter:
3. Calculate several wavelengths of standing waves on this string:
4. Calculate the corresponding frequencies:
Hear what a ukulele sounds like. (Scroll down.)
75.498 m/s
0.0526 kg/m
0.76 m, 0.38 m, 0.2533 m
99 Hz, 199 Hz, 298 Hz

34. Standings Waves in a Tube: 2 Open Ends
Like waves traveling on a string, sound waves traveling in a tube
reflect back when they reach the end of the tube. (Much of the sound
energy will exit the open tube, but some will reflect back.) If the
wavelength is right, the reflected waves will combine with the original
to create a standing wave. For a tube with two open ends, there will be
an antinode at each end, rather than a node. (A closed end would
correspond to a node, since it blocks the air from moving.) The pic
shows the fundamental. Note: the air does not move like a guitar string
moves; the curve represents the amount of vibration. Maximum
vibration occurs at the antinodes. In the middle is a node where the air
molecules don’t vibrate at all.
n = 1 (fundamental)
Harmonics animation
1st, 2nd, and 3rd Harmonics

35. Wavelength
Formula:
2 Open Ends
(tube of length L)
As with the string, the
pattern is:
2 L
n
λ =
Thus, only certain wave-
lengths will reinforce each
other (resonate). To obtain
tones corresponding to other
wavelengths, one must
change the tube’s length.
where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
n = 2
λ = L
n = 1
λ = 2 L
λ = L1
2
n = 4
n = 3
λ = L2
3

36. Standings Waves in a Tube:
1 Open End
Harmonics animation
1st, 3rd, and 5thHarmonics animations
(scroll down)
n = 1 (fundamental)
If a tube has one open and one closed end, the open end is a region
of maximum vibration of air molecules—an antinode. The closed
end is where no vibration occurs—a node. At the closed end, only
a small amount of the sound energy will be transmitted; most will
be reflected. At the open end, of course, much more sound energy
is transmitted, but a little is reflected. Only certain wavelengths of
sound will resonate in this tube, which depends on it length.

37. Wavelength
Formula:
1 Open End
(tube of length L)
This time the pattern is
different:
4 L
n
λ =
Note: only odd harmonics
exist when only one end is
open.
where n = 1, 3, 5, 7, ….
n = 3
n = 1
L =
n = 7
n = 5
L = λ3
4
1
4
λ
L = λ5
4
L = λ7
4
n λ
4
L =
or,

38. Tuning Forks & Resonance
Tuning forks produce sound when struck because, as the tines vibrate
back and forth, they bump into neighboring air molecules. (A speaker
works in the same way.) Animation
Touch a vibrating tuning fork to the surface of some water, and you’ll
see the splashing. The more frequently the tines vibrate, the higher the
frequency of the sound. The harmonics pics would look just like those
for a tube with one open end. Smaller tuning forks make a high pitch
sound, since a shorter length means a shorter wavelength.
If a vibrating fork (A) is brought near one that is not vibrating (B), A
will cause B to vibrate only if they made to produce the same
frequency. This is an example of resonance. If
the driving force (A) matches the natural fre-
quency of B, then A can cause the amplitude of
B to increase. (If you want to push someone on
a swing higher and higher, you must push at the
natural frequency of the swing.)
A B

39. Resonance: Shattering a Glass
determined by flicking
the glass with your
finger and listening to
the tone it makes. If
the glass is being
bombarded by sound
waves of this freq-
uency, the amplitude of
the vibrating glass with
grow and grow until the
glass shatters.
Can sound waves really shatter a wine glass? Yes, if the frequency of
the sound matches the natural frequency of the glass, and if the
amplitude is sufficient. The glass’s natural frequency can be

40. Standing Waves: Musical Instruments
As we saw with Schmedrick’s ukulele, string instruments make use
of vibrations on strings where each end is a vibrational node. The
strings themselves don’t move much air. So, either an electrical
pickup and amplifier are needed, or the strings must transmit
vibrations to the body of the instrument in which sound waves can
resonate.
Other instruments make use of standing waves in tubes. A flute for
example can be approximated as cylindrical tubes with two open
ends. A clarinet has just one open end. (The musician’s mouth
blocks air in a clarinet, forming a closed end, but a flutist blows air
over a hole without blocking the movement of air in and out.)
Other instruments, like drums, produce sounds via standing waves on
a surface, or membrane.
Hear and See a Transverse Flute
Hear a Clarinet, etc. (scroll down)
Standing Waves on a D

41. Complex Sounds
Real sounds are rarely as simple as the individual standing wave
patterns we’ve seen on a string or in a tube. Why is it that two
different instruments can play the exact same note at the same
volume, yet still sound so different? This is because many different
harmonics can exist at the same time in an instrument, and the wave
patterns can be very complex. If only fundamental frequencies could
be heard, instruments would sound more alike. The relative strengths
of different harmonics is known as timbre (tam’-ber). In other words,
most sounds, including voices, are complex
mixtures of frequencies. The sound made by a
flute is predominately due to the first & second
harmonics, so it’s waveform is fairly simple.
The sounds of other instruments are more
complicated due to the presence of additional
harmonics.
Combine Harmonics
Create a Complex Sound violin
piano
flute

42. Octaves & Ratios
Some mixtures of frequencies are pleasing to the ear;
others are not. Typically, a harmonious combo of sounds
is one in which the frequencies are in some simple ratio.
If a fundamental frequency is combined with the 2nd
harmonic, the ratio will be 1: 2. (Each is the same
musical note, but the 2nd
harmonic is one octave higher.
In other words, going up an octave means doubling the
frequency.)
Another simple (and therefore
harmonious) ratio is 2: 3. This can
be produced by playing a C note
(262 Hz) with a G note (392 Hz).

43. Beats
We’ve seen how many frequencies can combine to produce a
complicated waveform. If two frequencies that are nearly the same
combine, a phenomenon called beats occurs. The resulting
waveform increases and decreases in amplitude in a periodic way,
i.e., the sound gets louder and softer in a regular pattern. Hear Beats
When two waves differ slightly in frequency, they are alternately in
phase and out of phase. Suppose the two original waves have
frequencies f1 and f2. Then their superposition (below) will have
their average frequency and will get louder and softer with a
frequency of | f1 - f2 |.
Beats Animation
(click on “start simulation”)
soft loud
f beat = | f1 - f2 |
f combo = ( f1 + f2 )/2

44. Beats Example
Mickey Mouse and Goofy are playing an E note. Mickey’s
guitar is right on at 330 Hz, but Goofy is slightly out of tune
at 332 Hz.
1. What frequency will the audience hear?
2. How often will the audience hear the sound getting louder
and softer?
331 Hz, the average of the frequencies of the two guitars.
They will hear it go from loud to soft
twice each second. (The beat
frequency is 2 Hz, since the two
guitars differ in frequency by that
amount.)

45. Intesity
1 m2
All waves carry energy. In a typical sound wave the pressure doesn’t
vary much from the normal pressure of the medium. Consequently,
sound waves don’t transmit a whole lot of energy. The more energy a
wavefronts
sound wave transmits through a given area in a given
amount of time, the more intensity it has, and the
louder it will sound. That is, intensity is power
per unit area:
I =
P
A
Suppose that in one second the green
wavefronts carry one joule of sound
energy through the one square meter
opening. Then the intensity at the red
rectangle is
1 W/m2
. (1 Watt = 1 J/s.)

46. Intensity Example
If you place your alarm clock 3 times closer to your bed, how
many times greater will the intensity be the next morning?
answer:
Since the wavefronts are approximately
spherical, and the area of a sphere is
proportional to the square of its radius
(A = 4πr2
), the intensity is inversely
propotional to the square of the
distance (since I = P/A). So, cutting
the distance by a factor of 3 will make
the intensity of its ring about nine
times greater. However, our ears do
not work on a linear scale. The clock
will sound less than twice as loud.

47. Threshold Intensity
The more intense a sound is, the louder it will be. Normal sounds carry
small amounts of energy, but our ears are very sensitive. In fact, we can
hear sounds with intensities as low as 10-12
W/m2
! This is called the
threshold intensity, I0.
I0 = 10-12
W/m2
This means that if we had enormous ears like Dumbo’s, say a full
square meter in area, we could hear a sound delivering to this area
an energy of only one
trillionth of a joule
each second! Since our ears
are thousands of times smaller, the
energy our ears receive in a
second is thousands of times
less.

48. Sound Level in Decibels
The greater the intensity of a sound at a certain place, the louder it
will sound. But doubling the intensity will not make it seem twice
as loud. Experiments show that the intensity must increase by
about a factor of 10 before the sound will seem twice as loud to us.
A sound with a 100 times greater intensity will sound about 4 times
louder. Therefore, we measure sound level (loudness) based on a
logarithmic scale. The sound level in decibels (dB) is given by:
β = 10 log I
I0
Ex: At a certain distance from a siren, the intensity of the sound
waves might be 10–5
W/m2
. The sound level at this location would
be:
Note: According to this definition, a sound at the intensity level
registers zero decibels:
(in decibels)
10 log (10–5
/ 10–12
) = 10 log (107
) = 70 dB
10 log (10–12
/ 10–12
) = 10 log (1) = 0 dB

49. The Decibel Scale
Source Decibels
Anything on the verge
of being audible
0
Whisper 30
Normal Conversation 60
Busy Traffic 70
Niagara Falls 90
Train 100
Construction Noise 110
Rock Concert 120
Machine Gun 130
Jet Takeoff 150
Rocket Takeoff 180
Pain
Damage
}
Constant
exposure
leads to
permanent
hearing loss.
The chart below lists the approximate sound levels of various sounds.
The loudness of a given sound depends, of course, on the power of
the source of the sound as well as the distance from the source. Note:
Listening to loud music will gradually damage your hearing!

50. Intensity & Sound Level β = 10 log I
I0
Every time the intensity of a sound is increased by a factor of 10,
the sound level goes up by 10 dB (and the sound seems to us to be
about twice as loud). Let’s compare a 90 dB shout to a 30 dB
whisper. The shout is 60 dB louder, which means its intensity is
10 to the 6th
power (a million) times greater. Proof:
60 = β1 - β2 = 10 log (I1 /I0) - 10 log(I2 /I0) = 10 log I1 /I0
I2 /I0
60 = 10 log (I1 /I2) 6 = log (I1 /I2)
106
= I1 /I2
Compare intensities: 80 dB vs. 60 dB
Compare intensities: 100 dB vs. 75 dB
Compare sound levels:
4.2 ·10–4
W/m2
vs. 4.2 ·10–7
W/m2
answers:
factor of 100
factor of 316 (10 2.5
= 316)
differ by 30 dB ( I’s
differ by 3 powers of 10 )

51. Decibel Example
Suppose a 75 g egg is dropped from 50 m up onto the sidewalk. The
splat takes 0.05 s. Nearly all of the gravitational potential energy the
egg had originally is converted into thermal energy, but a very small
fraction goes into sound energy. Let’s say this fraction is only
6.7582 ·10–11
. How loud is the splat heard from the point at which
the egg was dropped? Hints: Answers:
1. How much energy does the egg originally have?
2. How much of that energy goes into sound?
3. Calculate sound power output of the egg.
4. Figure intensity at 50 m up.
(Assume the hemispherical wavefronts.)
5. Compute sound level in decibels.
36.75 J
2.4836 ·10–9
J
4.9673 ·10–8
W
3.1623 ·10–12
W/m2
5 dB, very faint

52. Credits
F-22 Raptor http://members.home.net/john-higgins/index2.htm
Sonar Vision http://www.elender.hu/~tal-mec/html/abc.htm
Krannert Center (acoustics) http://www.krannertcenter
.com/center/venues/foellinger.php
Ukulele:
http://www.glass-artist.co.uk/music/instruments/ukepics.html
Tuning Forks:
http://www.physics.brown.edu/Studies/Demo/waves/demo/3b7010.htm
Waveforms:
http://www.ec.vanderbilt.edu/computermusic/musc216site/what.is.sound.html
http://www.physicsweb.org/article/world/13/04/8
Piano : http://www.mathsyear2000.org/numberland/88/88.html

53. Credits
Mickey Mouse: http://store.yahoo.com/rnrdist/micmousgoofp.html
Dumbo: http://www.phil-sears.com/Folder%202/Dumbo%20sericel.JPG
Sound Levels: http://library.thinkquest.org/19537/Physics8.html?
tqskip1=1&tqtime=0224
Angus Young: http://kevpa.topcities.com/acdcpics2.html
Wine Glass: http://www.artglassw.com/ewu.htm
Opera Singer: http://www.ljphotography.com/photos/bw-opera-singer.jpg