Homeless women in Kolkata face significant challenges accessing transportation due to discrimination, financial constraints, and the nature of their occupations. The study utilized interviews with 26 homeless women to understand their experiences. It found they encounter prejudice on public transit due to their appearance and unhygienic conditions from living on the streets. Financial hardship makes most transportation unaffordable. Those working in "dirty, dangerous and demeaning" jobs like rag picking face additional stigma. Recently immigrated and older homeless women are especially vulnerable to exclusion. Comprehensive interventions are needed to promote inclusion, such as addressing discrimination, improving hygiene access, and making transportation affordable and accessible.

1. Left behind: The unheard voices of homeless women
facing transport exclusion in Kolkata
Margubur Rahaman, Senior Research Fellow
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai (INDIA)
Kailash Ch. Das, Professor
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai (INDIA)

2. Introduction
• Transportation is a fundamental pillar of modern society, intricately connected to various facets of
multidimensional development.
• However, the strengths and limitations of transportation systems vary across different geographical areas,
populations, and over time.
• Transport exclusion, a significant limitation of transportation services, is shaped by a complex interplay of
factors, such as gender, socio-economic background, transport policies, infrastructure, and social and cultural
contexts.
• Transport exclusion disproportionately affects socio-economically marginalized communities, leading to
adverse health outcomes and hindering overall development.
• There is a notable research gap in comprehending transport exclusion, particularly regarding gender,
homelessness, and socio-economic dimensions in India.
• Therefore, the present study aims to contextualize the phenomenon of transport exclusion among homeless
women in Kolkata, a megacity in India.

3. Homeless population in India: facts and figure
Homeless
, 1773040
Total,
1,210,193
,422
52.9
31.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Homeless Total
Rural (%) Urban (%)
694
943
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Homeless Total
Population size Sex Ratio Place of residence
Source: Authors computation using Census 2011 data

4. Spatial distribution of homeless population India
Fig. District level patterns of homeless population (persons), India (Census, 2011) Fig. District level patterns of homeless females population (persons), India (Census, 2011)

5. Study area: Why Kolkata district?
• Kolkata district ranks second in terms of homeless population in India, and it holds the highest position for
homeless females.
• The homeless population in Kolkata is growing, while the overall population growth rate is negative.
• Being a primate city, Kolkata faces common challenges of slums, homelessness, and urban ghettos.
• In addition to natural population growth, factors such as vulnerability to natural disasters, cross-border
migration, and the influx of marginalized labor contribute to fluctuations in the size of the homeless
population over time.
• Kolkata characterized by large geographical extension, where mode of transport is crucial aspect of
development.

6. Methods
o The present study employed qualitative methods, including in-depth
interviews (IDIs), key informant interviews (KIIs), and observations.
Data collection was conducted from October 2022 to March 2023
within the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) area.
o A total of 26 IDIs were conducted, purposively selected.
Additionally, 5 KIIs were conducted to gather qualitative information
pertaining to transport exclusion within the last one month of the
survey.
o Thematic analysis was applied to identify and present the key
challenges and barriers encountered by women in accessing
transportation services. Atlas Ti software is used to ensure the
reliability of the qualitative assessment.
Fig. Geo-referenced of the study area.

7. Profile of the participants
Mean %
Age (Mean) 25.7
Currently married 69.7
Years of schooling (Mean) 3.2
Religion
Hindu 50.0
Muslim 42.3
Others 7.7
Social group
No caste 23.1
Scheduled caste 26.9
Tribal 7.7
Backward class 42.3
Average monthly income
(mean) ₹8300
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
Rag pickerHome maid Begger Others
Table 1 demographic and socio-economic
background
Fig. Occupational structure
74%
26%
Migrant Non-migrant
Fig. Migration status

8. Challenges and barriers encountered by women in accessing transportation services
o The qualitative findings shed light on the multiple factors contributing to transport exclusion among homeless
women. The majority of participants shared their experiences of discrimination, revealing a disheartening reality.
o Additionally, unhygienic practices, such as wearing dirty clothing, further compounded their challenges.
o Financial constraints emerged as another significant hurdle, making it difficult for these women to access suitable
transportation options.
o Furthermore, for those working as sewage or rag pickers, their occupation added an additional layer of
vulnerability and hardship. These findings emphasize the complex interplay of social, economic, and
occupational factors that contribute to the exclusion of homeless women from the realm of transportation.
o Addressing these issues and striving for a more inclusive transport system becomes imperative to ensure their
dignity, well-being, and equitable access to essential services.

9. Nexus of Social Exclusion and Transport Exclusion
• One prominent theme that emerged was the pervasive sense of marginalization and stigmatization
experienced by homeless women. Participants reported feeling invisible and ignored, as if their presence in
public spaces, including transportation hubs, was inconsequential. This social exclusion further exacerbated
their transport exclusion, as they encountered reluctance from drivers, discrimination, and sometimes even
outright refusal of service. Such experiences reinforced their already vulnerable position within society,
limiting their ability to access necessary services and opportunities.
“As a homeless woman, my experiences on public transport have often been marred by discrimination and
judgment. It's disheartening to witness how other passengers treat me, using derogatory language and casting
disdainful looks my way. The journey on public transport becomes an ordeal as I feel the weight of their
judgment bearing down on me. The discrimination I face on public transport not only leaves me feeling isolated
but also limits my livelihood.” (IDI, 31 years old women)

10. Unhygienic practice and Transport Exclusion
• The interviewee who resided under a flyover shared the stark reality of distress livelihood. They explained that
due to their homeless situation, finding a clean and private area for personal hygiene was nearly impossible.
When attempting to utilize public transportation to visit healthcare facility or far distanced work place,
encountered yet another obstacle - the discrimination they faced due to their appearance. Passengers would often
judge them harshly based on their visible dirtiness. They described the hurtful experiences of being denied entry
or receiving disapproving glances and derogatory remarks from fellow passengers.
• Listening to their narrative, it became evident that homelessness brings forth a multitude of challenges beyond
simply lacking shelter. The lack of access to clean clothing and bathing facilities contributes to a vicious cycle of
discrimination, perpetuating their exclusion from public spaces.
• This in-depth interview serves as a powerful reminder of the urgent need for compassionate solutions to support
the homeless population. It highlights the importance of providing not only shelter but also accessible hygiene
facilities and promoting empathy within society. By addressing these systemic issues, we can strive towards a
more inclusive society where homeless individuals are treated with dignity and afforded equal opportunities to
access public transportation without facing discrimination.

11. Dirty, dangerous and demeaning (3D) work participation and transport exclusion
• The qualitative findings also highlighted the demeaning aspects of 3D work and its implications for transport
exclusion. Participants expressed feelings of shame and dehumanization due to the nature of their occupations. This
sense of degradation affected their self-esteem and further compounded their exclusion from public transportation.
The stigma associated with their work amplified the discrimination they faced, making it even more difficult for them
to access suitable transportation options and participate fully in society.
“Every day, as I work hard to make a living by selling rags, I face a constant struggle when it comes to accessing
convenient transportation. While I manage to earn around 500-600 rupees, the limitations of my occupation make it
challenging for me to utilize the swift transport options. The buses and trains, designed to accommodate the needs of
many, fail to cater to the unique requirements of a rag picker like myself. Their rigid systems and lack of provisions for
carrying bulky items make it nearly impossible for me to rely on them for my daily commute. Instead, I seek alternative
modes of transportation, such as rickshaws or vans. Although these alternatives provide me with a means to reach my
destination, they come at a cost - the cost of time”. (IDI, 26 years old girl)
• Addressing these issues requires comprehensive interventions that challenge societal stereotypes, improve
transportation accessibility, and provide support for individuals engaged in 3D work, ultimately fostering a more
inclusive and equitable transport system.

12. Financial hardship and transport exclusion
• The stories shared by participants unveiled a stark reality: many homeless women find themselves trapped in
a cycle of poverty, where financial constraints dictate their daily lives, affording transportation becomes a
significant hurdle. The inability to pay for transportation costs creates a barrier, further exacerbating their
social and economic exclusion.
• Participants expressed the immense difficulty in accessing public and private bus, metro services due to their
financial circumstances. They lacked the means to purchase a ticket. The financial burden weighed heavily on
their shoulders, restricting their mobility and limiting their transport facility options.
As a daily vegetable seller, I get my goods from Sealdah Market and sell it around four-five kilometers away.
Due to my meager daily earnings, I typically travel by foot. (IDI, 41 years old women)

13. Others factors of transport exclusion
• When using transit services, the respondents occasionally experience prejudice based on their language. The
problem is primarily seen among non-Bengali.
• Due to their ignorance of routes and access to affordable transportation, recently immigrated homeless women
are especially vulnerable to transportation exclusion.
• Older homeless women are more frequently excluded from public transit, mainly because boarding crowded
buses or trains is physically challenging.

14. Conclusion
In conclusion, the qualitative findings reveal that homeless women face transport exclusion due to discrimination,
unhygienic practices, financial constraints, and occupational vulnerabilities. Prejudice based on language
particularly affects non-Bengali individuals. Recently immigrated homeless women and older women are especially
vulnerable. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive interventions, including tackling discrimination,
improving hygiene facilities, addressing financial constraints, providing language support, and ensuring
accessibility for older individuals. These interventions are crucial for promoting inclusivity and empowering
homeless women to overcome transportation exclusion.

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16. Thank You