Organizational Behavior ; Individual Motivation

1. WORKPLACE MOTIVATION
& INDIVIDUAL

2. KINDS OF MOTIVATION
Positive vs Negative

3. KINDS OF MOTIVATION
Internal vs External

4. KINDS OF MOTIVATION
Basic vs learned

5. FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL
MOTIVATION
1. Individual Needs
2. Job Design
3. Environment

6. MOTIVATION THEORIES

7. Early Ideas on Work Motivation
Scientific management and
work of F.W Tylor
Hawthorne Experiment &
human relation approach
Content Theories
Emphasis on what motivates individual
Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland
Process Theories
Emphasis on actual process of Motivation
Expectancy Theory Equity Theory
Goal Theory Attribution Theory

8. CONTENT THEORY OF MOTIVATION

9. Major content theories of motivation include:
■ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model;
■ Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model;
■ Herzberg’s two-factor theory;
■ McClelland’s achievement motivation theory

10. 10STUDY QUESTION : WHAT DO THE CONTENT THEORIES SUGGEST
ABOUT INDIVIDUAL NEEDS AND MOTIVATION?
Acquired needs theory.
 Need for achievement (nAch).
 The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to
master complex tasks.
 Need for affiliation (nAff).
 The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others.
 Need for power (nPower).
 The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for
others.

11. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
THEORY
Based on Maslow’s theory, once lower-level needs
have been satisfied (say at the physiological and
safety levels), giving more of the same does not
provide motivation. Individuals advance up the
hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes
satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a
change in behaviour, the manager must direct
attention to the next higher level of needs (in this
case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction.

12. ALDERFER’S MODIFIED NEED
HIERARCHY MODEL (ERG THEORY)
Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival
Relatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the social environment and cover love or belonging, affiliation
and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or esteem nature.
Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential and cover self-esteem and self-actualisation.

13. HERZBERG’S WORK
Herzberg’s work has had a considerable effect
on the rewards and remuneration packages
offered by corporations. Increasingly, there is a
trend towards ‘cafeteria’ benefits in which
people can choose from a range of options. In
effect, they can select the elements they
recognise as providing their own motivation to
work. Similarly, the current emphasis on self-
development, career management and self-
managed learning can be seen as having
evolved from Herzberg’s insights.
Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. (eds) Financial Times and book of
Management, second edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2001), p.
361.

15. MCCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION THEORY
McClelland’s work originated from investigations into the relationship
between hunger needs
and the extent to which imagery of food dominated thought processes.
From subsequent research McClelland identified four main arousal-
based, and socially developed, motives:
■ the Achievement motive;
■ the Power motive;
■ the Affiliative motive;
■ the Avoidance motive

17. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Process theories, or extrinsic theories, attempt to identify the relationships among
the dynamic variables that make up motivation and the actions required to
influence behavior and actions.

18. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
 expectancy-based models – Vroom, and Porter and Lawler;
 Equity Theory – Adams;
 Goal Theory – Locke;
 Attribution Theory – Heider And Kelley

19. EXPECTANCY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected
results of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between:
1- effort expended and perceived level of performance; and
2-the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance.
There must also be:
3- the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available

20. Expectancy theory hypothesises that
individuals change their behaviour
according to their anticipated satisfaction
in achieving certain goals
(Vroom, 1964)

21. VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy theories of motivation
Vroom was the first person to propose an expectancy theory aimed specifically at work motivation. His model is
based on three key variables: valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE theory or expectancy/valence theory). The
theory is founded on the idea that people prefer certain outcomes from their behaviour over others. They anticipate
feelings of satisfaction should the preferred outcome be achieved.
valence The feeling about specific outcomes is termed valence
instrumentality Distinction between first-level outcomes and second-level outcomes.
expectancy People develop a perception of the degree of probability that the choice of a particular action will
actually lead to the desired outcome.

22. THE PORTER AND LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL
Expectancy theories of motivation
Porter and Lawler see motivation, satisfaction and performance as separate variables and attempt to
explain the complex relationships among them. Their model recognises that job satisfaction is more
dependent upon performance, than performance is upon satisfaction.

23. Expectancy theories of motivation
THE PORTER AND LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL
Source: From Porter, L. W. and Lawler, E. E. Managerial Attitudes and Performance (1968), p. 165. Copyright © 1968 Richard D. Irwin Inc. Reproduced with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies.

24. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS OF
EXPECTANCY THEORIES
■ Use rewards appropriate in terms of individual performance
■ Attempt to establish clear relationships between effort–performance and rewards, as
perceived by the individual.
■ Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of individual levels of performance.
■ Pay attention to intervening variables such as abilities and traits, role perceptions, organisational procedures and
support facilities
■ Minimise undesirable outcomes which may be perceived to result from a high level of performance, such as
industrial accidents or sanctions from co-workers, or to result despite a high level of performance, such as short-
time working or layoffs.

25. 25STUDY QUESTION : WHAT DO THE PROCESS THEORIES SUGGEST
ABOUT INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION?
A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
(M = E x I x V).

26. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in
comparison with the treatment received by others. It is based on exchange
theory. Social relationships involve an exchange process

27. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
GOAL THEORY
Locke subsequently pointed out that ‘goal-setting is more
appropriately viewed as a motivational technique rather
than as a formal theory of motivation’
Values
Emotions &
Desires
Goals
Responses and
Work Behavior
Consequences or
Feedback
Goal Difficulty
Level of
Commitment
The combination of goal difficulty and the extent of
the person’s commitment to achieving
the goal regulates the level of effort expended

28. 28STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT THEORIES AND
HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?
 Reinforcement.
 The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.
 Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and
persistence of an individual’s behavior.

29. 29STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT THEORIES AND
HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?

30. 30STUDY QUESTION : WHAT ARE REINFORCEMENT
THEORIES AND HOW ARE THEY LINKED TO MOTIVATION?
 Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod).
 The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the
non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.
 Uses four basic strategies:
 Positive reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement.
 Punishment.
 Extinction.

31. READING
Motivation Techniques & Tools –
CHAPTER 7 WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION – Management & Organizational
Behavior 9th Edition
CHAPTER 12 WORK MOTIVATION & REWARDS – Mullin 7th Edition

32. ESSAY – WORD LIMIT 2000 WORDS
Introducing your essay
The introduction should focus a reader’s attention on the central theme of an essay. It should clarify how you
intend to interpret or limit the question and give a clear, but brief, overview of your argument and the main
points supporting it.
Paragraphs
Each paragraph should develop a point or topic – for this reason they are the foundations upon which your
argument is built. A paragraph should include a topic sentence, which states the main idea of that paragraph.
Harvard referencing