Research Methods and Process

1
UNIT-I
RESEARCH
MEANING AND DEFINATION OF RESEARCH:
Research implies the study and exploring of knowledge to get the new ideas. Research
methodology is a way of solving research problems systematically. Research means search
for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation
It is a search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to
a problem.
R – Rational way of thinking
E – Expertness.
S – Search for solution.
E – Exactness.
A - Analysis of data.
R – Relationship of different variables
C – Carefully recording.
H – Honesty and hardworking.
“Research is a common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.”
“Research is defined as a systematic effort to gain knowledge.”
“Research means careful investigation to search for new facts.”
“A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch and
knowledge”
CHARACTERSTICS /FEATURES OF A REPORT –
1. Research is based on the scientific method.
2. Helps in answering various pertinent questions.
3. It is an organized, planned and patient investigation or a critical enquiry.
4. It has logical roots, helping to establish facts or principles.

2
FEATURES THAT A GOOD RESEARCH PROCEDURE MUST POSSESS ARE-
1. Should be systematic in nature.
2. Should be logical.
3. Should be empirical and replicable in nature.
4. Should be according to plans.
5. Should be according to the rules and the assumptions should not be based on the false
bases or judgments.
6. Should be relevant to what is required.
7. Procedure should be reproducible in nature.
8. Controlled movement of the research procedure.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER –
1. Method of approach – The researcher should adopt correct procedure for identifying a
problem and then for working on it, to find a solution for that problem.
2. Knowledge – The researcher should be well aware and should have complete knowledge and
information of the field of investigation so that he can go in for correct planning and then
implementation of the correct and effective methods for selection of the problem and then for
solving it.
3. Qualification – The researcher should have a good back ground of study, which will enable
the researcher to have a better knowledge and understanding of the subject.
4. Attitude – The researcher must have a vision of his own, an aim with some objectives to
achieve something.
5. Should have an open thinking.
6. Should be stable, having consistent thinking.
7. Should be honest, sincere, brave and ambitious
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

3
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH -
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization
(i) The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to
the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times
(ii) Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system
(iii) Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry
.
(iv) Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems
.
(vi) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerismor a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(vii) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(viii) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(ix) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
(x) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in
a better way.
SCOPE OF RESEARCH:
 Marketing research
 For making government policies
 Operational research
 Motivational research

4
LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH –
1. Problems of collection of data and conceptualization may occur.
2. Repetition problems.
3. Outdated and insufficient information systemmay cause problems.
4. Sometimes lack of resources becomes an obstacle.
5. Non availability of trained researchers.
6. Absence of code of conduct.
TYPES OF RESEARCH:
Research can be classified in many different ways. some major ways of classifying research
include the following.
 Descriptive versus Analytical Research
 Applied versus Fundamental Research
 Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
 Conceptual versus Empirical Research
Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the nature of something as it
exists. In contrast analytical research is concerned with determining validity of hypothesis
based on analysis of facts collected.
Applied research is carried out to find answers to practical problems to be solved and as an aid
in decision making in different areas including product design, process design and policy
making. Fundamental research is carried out as more to satisfy intellectual curiosity, than with
the intention of using the research findings for any immediate practical application.
Quantitative research studies such aspects of the research subject which are not quantifiable,
and hence not subject to measurement and quantitative analysis. In contrast quantitative
research make substantial use of measurements and quantitative analysis techniques.
Conceptual research is involves investigation of thoughts and ideas and developing new ideas
or interpreting the old ones based on logical reasoning. In contrast empirical research is based
on firm verifiable data collected by either observation of facts under natural condition or
obtained through experimentation.
Some Other Types of Research:
one-time researchor longitudinal research In the formercase the researchisconfinedtoa single time-
period,whereasinthe lattercase the researchiscarriedon overseveral time-periods.
Researchcan be field-settingresearchorlaboratory researchor simulationresearch,dependingupon
the environmentinwhichitistobe carriedout.

5
Researchcan as well be understoodas clinical or diagnosticresearch. Suchresearchfollow case-study
methodsorindepthapproachestoreachthe basiccausal relations.Suchstudiesusuallygodeepintothe
causesof thingsoreventsthatinterestus,usingverysmall samplesandverydeepprobingdata
gatheringdevices.
The researchmay be exploratory or it may be formalized.The objective of exploratoryresearchisthe
developmentof hypothesesratherthan theirtesting,whereasformalizedresearchstudiesare those
withsubstantial structure andwithspecifichypothesestobe tested.
Historical researchis that whichutilizeshistorical sourceslikedocuments,remains,etc.tostudyevents
or ideasof the past, includingthe philosophyof personsandgroupsatany remote pointof time.
Researchcan alsobe classifiedas conclusion-orientedanddecision-oriented.While doingconclusion
orientedresearch,aresearcherisfree topickupa problem, redesignthe enquiryashe proceedsandis
preparedtoconceptualize ashe wishes. Decision-orientedresearchisalwaysforthe needof a decision
makerand the researcherinthiscase is not free toembarkuponresearchaccordingto hisown
inclination.Operationsresearchisanexample of decisionorientedresearchsince itisa scientificmethod
of providingexecutive departmentswithaquantitative basisfordecisionsregardingoperationsunder
theircontrol.

6
RESEARCH PROCESS
1.DEFINE RESEARCH PROBLEM:
The first step is to understand the problem in meaningful terms. It can be
understood by discussions or by taking the help of experts.
2. REVIEW LITERATURE:
After understanding problem , the second step is to study the journals , government reports,
books that are related with the problem.
DEFINING RESEARCH
PROBLEM.
REVIEW LITERATURE
FORMULATE
HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH DESIGN
DETERMINE SAMPLE
DESIGN.
COLLECTION OF DATA
ANALYSE DATA
FINDINGS AND REPORTS.

7
3. FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS:
After literature reviews, the researchers state hypothesis in clear terms. Hypothesis is an
assumption made in order to know that test is logical.
4. RESEARCH DESIGN:
The next step is to prepare a research design i.e., have to state the structure in which research
is to be created.
The research design consists of:
 Time available for research.
 Cost related to research
 Skills of the researcher.
 Means of obtaining information.
5.DETERMINE SAMPLE DESIGN:
A sample design is a plan determined before any data are actually collected. Selecting 5
students out of 30 students to know their height.
Types of sample design:
 Deliberate sampling
 Random sampling
 Judgement sampling.
 Systematic sampling.
6.COLLECTION OF DATA: The next step is to collect the data. It takes much time and cost .
Data are of two types i.e. primary and secondary data.

8
7.ANALYSIS OF DATA: After collection of data the next step is to convert the data in to
meaningful terms so that solution to a problem can be found out.
8.FINDINGS AND REPORT: After analysis , the research take out findings i.e. solution to a
problem and prepare a report. Report must be prepared with great care.
Types of
data.
Primary
data.
Secondary
data.

9
UNIT –II
RESEARCH DESIGN
MEANING AND DEFINATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
The research design provides the back bone structure of the study, it supports the study and
hold it's together.
A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design will typically
include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments
will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.
.
More explicitly, the design decisions are actually with respect of:
1. What is the study about?
2. The reason why the study being done?
3. Where we will perform the the study?
4. Which kind of data is needed?
5. Where can the necessary data be discovered?
6. What time periods will the study contain?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What methods of data collection will likely be employed?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be organized?
Burns and Grove define a research design as “a blueprint for performing a study with
maximum control over factors which could interfere with the validity of the findings”. –
Parahoo explains a research design as “a plan which explains how, when and where data are to
be collected and analysed”.
PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
(a) the sampling design that relates to the process of selecting items to be observed for the
provided research;
(b) the observational design that pertains to the conditions under which the observations are to
be made;
(c) the statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and the way the information and data collected should be analysed; and

10
(d) the operational design that is concerned with the techniques through which the procedures
given in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be executed.
FEATURES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN ARE:
(i) It is a plan which describes the sources and kinds of information strongly related to the
research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy indicating which method will be employed for collecting and examining the
data.
(iii) It also consists of the time and cost budgets because most studies are done under these
two limitations.
In a nutshell, research design must, at least, contain (a) a clear statement of the research
problem; (b) processes and methods to be utilized for collecting data; (c) the population to be
researched; and (d) techniques to be employed in processing and examining data.
CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:
Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to
be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum
information and provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate efficient design . Thus the question of a good design is
related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the
problem to be studied. A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions
namely objectivity, reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.
1. Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of
the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instrument which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the
same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of
agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one
independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable
of analysis and drawing generalizations.
2. Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency through out a series of measurements. For eg: if a
respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response
to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the
consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a
way that it provides consistency or reliability.
3. Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is
expected to measure. For eg: an intelligence test concucted for measuring the I.Q should
measure only the intelligence and nothing else, and the questionnaire shall be framed
accordingly.

11
4. Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for
drawing certain generalisations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a
research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care
in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc.
while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is
methodologically prepared and should ensure that:
a) The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.
b) The population is clearly defined.
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection is used to form an appropriate sample.
d) Appropriate statical analysis has been carried out, and
e) The findings of the study is capable of generalisations.
NEEDS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN:
 It reduces inaccuracy.
 Helps to get maximum efficiency & reliability.
 Eliminates bias & marginal errors.
 Minimizes wastage of time.
 Helpful for collecting research materials.
 Helpful for testing hypothesis.
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in term of money, manpower,
time & efforts.
 Provides an overview to other experts.
 Guides the research in the right direction.

12
TYPES OF DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGN:
I. Research Design in case of Exploratory Studies:-
Exploratory research studies are also timed as formulative research studies. The main purpose
of such studies is that of formulates a problem for more press investigation or of developing the
working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis is on in such studies
is on the discovery of new ideas & insigne. As such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Generally the following
three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about:
 A survey of concerning literature.
 The experience survey.
 The analysis of insight stimulating.
II. Research Design in case of Description Research Design & Diagnostic Research Design:-
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with the describing the
characters of a particular person/individual or of a group. Where as diagnostic research
design/studies determines the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. Most of the social research comes under this category from the point of view of
ResearchDesignin
case of Discription
ResearchStudies
Typesof Different
ResearchDesign
ResearchDesign
incase of
Hypothesis
TestingResearch
Studies
ResearchDesignin
case of
Exploratory
Studies

13
the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirement &
as such we may group together these two types of research studies.
The design in such studies must be rigid & not flexible & must focus. Attention on the
following:-
 From waiting the objective of study (what the study is about & why is it being made).
 Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted)
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required data be found & with what time period
should the data be related)
 Processing & analysing the data.
 Reporting the finding.
III. Research Design in case of Hypothesis Testing Research Studies:-
Hypothesis research studies are those where the researchers tests the hypothesis of casual
relationship & between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias
& increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality: usually experiment
meets requirements. Hence when we talk about the studies, we often mean the design of
experiment.
- Types of Research Designs
We will classify research studies into five categories:
Exploratory research design
Descriptive research design
- Historical research
- Descriptive research
- Developmental research
- Survey research
- Case study research
Comparative research design
- Correlational research
- Causal-comparative research
Interventional research design
- True experimental research
- Quasi-experimental research
Qualitative research design

14
1) Exploratory Research Design:
An exploratory research is defined as “a study undertaken in areas where very little prior
knowledge or information is available on the subject under investigation”. It is thus the initial
research conducted to study and define the nature of a problem. An exploratory study is
undertaken when we do not know much about the situation at hand. In such cases, extensive
preliminary work needs to be dome to gain familiarity with the phenomenon the situation.
2) Descriptive Research Design:
Descriptive research describes phenomena as they exist. Such studies involve the systematic
collection and presentation of data to give a clear picture of a particular situation. These studies
attempt to obtain a complete and accurate of situation. These studies can be classified in the
following five categories: (a) historical, (b) descriptive, (c) developmental, (d) survey, and (e)
case studies.
- Historical Research:
Historical research is concerned with past phenomena. It can be defined as “the systematic and
objective location, evaluation, and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw
conclusions about past events.” Historical research is thus a process of collection, evaluating,
verifying, and synthesizing past evidence systematically and objectively to reach a conclusion.
- Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is a fact- finding operation searching for adequate information; it is a type
of study, which is generally conducted to assess the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a
given population and to describe the situation and events occurring at present. Descriptive
research is a process of accumulating facts. It does not necessarily seek to explain relationships,
test hypotheses, make predictions or get at meanings and implications of a study. Descriptive
research can either quantitative or qualitative. This research involves gathering data that
describes events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection.
Descriptive statics is used to reduce the data to manageable form.
- Developmental Research:
Developmental research is conducted for the purpose of predicting future trends. It
concentrates on the study of variables, their rates of change, directions, sequences and other
inter-related factors over a period of time. Developmental research focused on the study of
variables and their development over a period of months or years. It asks, “What are the
patterns of growth, their rates, their directions, their sequences, and the interrelated factors
affecting these characteristics?”
- Survey Research:
A survey is a means of gathering information about the characteristics, actions, or opinions of a
large group of people, referred to as a population. A survey research is thus defined as “the
systematic gathering of information from respondents for the purpose of understanding and/or
predicting some aspect of the behavior of the population of interest” (Tull & Hawkins, 1997, p.
164). A survey study is perhaps the dominant form of data collection in social science, today. If
conducted scientifically, this type of research can contribute to the advance of knowledge.

15
- Case Study Research:
Case study research is an important approach to study the topics in social science and
management. Case studies are written summaries or synthesis of real-life cases based upon
data and research. A case study is thus defined as “a strategy for doing research which involves
on empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context.”
Rather than using samples to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods
involve in in-depth longitudinal examination of a single instance or event. This research thus
views a social or study unit as a whole in its real-life context. This study phenomenon could be a
person, a family, a social group, an institution, a community, or even an entire culture.
3) Comparative Research Designs:
A comparative study attempts to establish causes for certain problem. This is done by
comparing two or more groups of situation or variables. Comparative studies can be classified
into two categories: correlational and causal-comparative research.
- Correlational Research:
Correlational research is used to obtain descriptions of phenomena. This technique is used to
ascertain the extent to which two variables are related. In a correlational relationship, changed
in one variable accompany changes in another, but the proper tests have not been conducted
to show that either variable actually influences the other. Thus, all that is known is that a
relationship between them exists. When changes in one variable tend to be accompanied by
specific changes in another, two variables are said to covary.
- Causal-Comparative Research:
Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be termed explanatory
studies. This research investigates the possible causes affecting a particular situation by
observing existing consequences and searching for the possible factors leading to these results.
The emphasis is thus on studying a situation or problem in order to explain the relationships
between two variables. This research is also known as ‘ex post facto’ (Latin for “after the fact”)
research. This is because both the effect and the alleged causes have already occurred and
must be studied in retrospect.
4) Interventional Research Designs:
In international research studies, the researcher intervenes and manipulated a situation to
measure the effects of the manipulation. Usually (but not always) two groups are compared,
one in which the intervention takes place. Discovering causal relationships is the key to
experimental research. The goal is to establishing cause-and-effect relationships between
variables. Experimental research thus provides the vest method possible to examine a cause
and effect situation.
- True Experimental Research:
The true experimental research is defined as “a situation in which a researcher objectively
observes phenomenon which is made to occur in a strictly controlled situation where one or
more variables are valid and the others are kept constant”. Hence, an experiment is a test of a

16
causal proposition. Experimental research is familiar to most of us as the test- tube research
conducted in a laboratory by a scientist wearing a white smock. Scientists are conducting
experimental research when they put exactly the same materials into two tests –tubes and
then add one new ingredient to only none of the original tubes. After the new ingredient is
added to one tube, the changes that take place in that tube are measured.
- Quasi-experimental Research:
When an experimental method is used to solve problem, it is the most respected mean of
obtaining reliable knowledge. The word “quasi” means as if or almost. Hence, a quasi-
experiment means almost a true experiment. As with true experimental research, the goal of
quasi-experimental research is to test cause and effect by observing how subjects react to
phenomena.
Factors Affecting Research Design
 Availability of scientific information
 Availability of sufficient data
 Time availability
 Proper exposure to the data source
 Availability of the money
 Manpower availability
 Magnitude of the management problem
 Degree of top management support
 Ability, knowledge, skill, technical understanding & technical background of the
researcher
 Uncontrollable variables
 Internal variables
 External variables
Advantages/Uses/Purpose of Research Design
 Consumes less time.
 Ensure project time schedule.
 Help research to prepare him to carry out research in a proper & systematic way.
 Proper documentation of the various activate while the project work is going on.
 Help in proper planning of the resources & their procurement in right time.
Proper satisfactory & confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning of
the work of the research project

17
Purpose of Research Design
The purpose & criteria for formulating a design of research, condition for judging causality &
use of research designs a control of variance are discussed. The purpose of a research design is
to provide a plan of study in at permits accurate assessment of cause & effect relationship
between independent variables. The classic controlled experiment is an ideal example of good
research design. Factors that affect the evaluation of the effect of experimental treatment &
the generalizations derived from it. Able identified. Source of variance can be controlled by
eliminatory a variable, randomization, matching, or including a variables part the design.
A research project should be so designated that:-
 It answers the questioned being investigated.
 Extraneous factors are controlled.
 The degree of generalization that can be made is valid.
Principle of Research Design
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of Research/Experimental design.
 The Principle of Replication.
 The Principle of Randomization.
 The Principle of Local Control.
The Principle of Replication
It is a repetition of the basic experiment. In all experiments some variation exits because the
experimental units, such as individuals or plots of land, cannot be physically identical. This
variation is removable by using a number of experimental units. Therefore the basic experiment
is performed repeatedly. Researchers repeat the same studies on different research participant
to see if the produce is the same statistically significant result each time. Its number, shape, size
are influenced by the nature of the experimental material.
Replication helps in:-
 Obtaining an accurate estimate of experimental error.
 Decreasing the experimental error.
 Increasing precision (accurate/exact).
 Obtaining a more price estimate of the mean treatment effect.

18
The Principle of Randomization
In this principle the process randomly assigns treatment to experimental units. It implies that
every allotment of treatments ends up with the same probability. When dividing research
participants into the different group, random assignment ensures that every participant has
equal chances of being assigned to both the experimental group & the control group.
Randomization purpose is to remove bias & other source of extraneous, which are
incontrollable. It is the basis of any valid statical test. Therefore the treatments must be
assigned randomly to the experimental unit.
The Principle of Local Control
Randomization & Replication do not remove extraneous source of variation. A more refined
experimental tech is required. For that a design should be chosen such hat all the extraneous
source of variation come under control. For these purpose local control refers to the amount of
balancing, blocking & grouping of the experimental unit is used.
Balancing implies that the treatment should be assigned to the experimental units such that the
result is a balanced arrangement & treatments.
Blocking means that similar experiments should be collected together to form a relatively
homogenous group.The main purpose of local control is to increase the efficiency of an
experimental design by minimizing the experimental error.

19
UNIT – III
Data Collection
Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering & measuring information on variable of interest, in
an established systematic way that enables one to answer stated research questions. The data
collection component of research common to all field of study physical, social science,
humanity, business etc.
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the studies. The researcher
should keep in mind the two types of sources of data:-
 Primary Data
 Secondary Data
Types of Data
There are two types of data
 Quantitative Data
 Qualitative Data
Quantitative Data
It refers to the information that is collected as, can be translated into numbers, which can then
be displayed & analysed mathematically.
For e.g.: The frequency (rate, duration) of specific behaviours & conditions, test scores, survey
results, number or percentage of people with certain characteristics in a population.
Or
The shoe size can be ranked from big to small
Qualitative Data
They are collected as descriptions, opinion, quotes, interpretations etc. & all generally either
not able to be reduced to number or are considered more valuable or informative.
Qualitative data can not be expressed as number. Data such as gender, economic status,
religion preference are usually considered to be qualitative data.

20
Source of Various Types of Data
 Primary Data
 Secondary Data
Primary Data
Primary source of data implies collection of data from its sources of origin. It offers you first
hand quantitative information relating to your statistical study.
Secondary Data
It implies collection of data from some agencies or institutions which already happens to
happens to have collected the data through statistical survey. It does not offer you first hand
information relating to your statistical studies. You are relay on the information which already
exists.
 In words of Wessel, “Data originally collected in the process of investigation all know as
Primary Data.”
 In words of MM.Blair, “Secondary Data are those which are already inexistence & which
have been collected for some other purpose than the answering of the question in
hand.”
OR
According to Wessel, “data collection by others (person) is Secondary Data.

21
Difference between Primary source & Secondary source of data
Difference in originality
It is original because these are collected by
the investigator from the source of their
origin.
It is not original because it is already in
existence
Difference in the suitability of objectives
They are always related to a specific objective
of the investigator. These data therefore do
not need any adjustment for the concerned
study.
They have already been collected for some
other purpose. Therefore these data are
needed to be adjusted to suit the objective
study in hand.
Difference in cost of collection
These are costlier in terms, money, efforts
involved that the secondary data. This is of
origin.
These are simply collected from the
published or unpublished report.
Accordingly, these are much less expensive.
Need of Data Collection
 Provides information & knowledge
 Helpful in analysis & interpreting the results
 It makes the research accurate
 More reliable in work of research
 Convenient method of getting information
 For making reports
 Findings & conclusion of research
 Decision making person

22
Methods of Data Collection (In the category of primary Data)
 Observational Method
 Interview Method
 Questionnaire Method
 Schedules
 Case Study Method
Observation Method
This method is the most commonly used method specially studies in relating to behavioural
science. In a way we all observe things around us, but this type of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes scientific tool & the method of data collection for the
researcher. The information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without
asking from the respondent.
For e.g.: In a study related to consumer behaviour the investigator without asking from
respondent that which wrist water he used may himself look at watch.
Advantages
 Bias is eliminated.
 Observation is done accurately.
 It depends upon currently performed information.
Disadvantages
 Expensive Method
 Limited information
 Obstacle the people (problem to some people)
Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stonily & replies in
terms of oral responses or verbal one.
Types
 Personal Interview
 Telephonic Interviews

23
Personal Interview
This method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally
face to face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview may be in
the form of direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation.
Direct Personal Investigation is the method in which the data is personally collected
by the investigator from the informants.
Merits
 Originality
 Accuracy
 Reliable (not doubtful information)
 Provides related information also
 Elastic (fairly elastic because the investigator can make necessary
adjustments in the set of questions)
Demerits
 Difficult to cover wide range
 Personal bias
 Costly
 Limited coverage
Indirect Investigation is the method by which information is obtained not from the
persons regarding whom the information is needed. It is collected orally from other
persons who are expected to posses the necessary information. This other persons
are known as witnesses.
For e.g.: the data on economics condition of workers may be collected from their
employees rather then the worker themselves.
Merits
 Wide coverage
 Less expensive
 Expert opinion
 Free from bias
 Simple

24
Demerits
 Less accurate
 Biased (possibility of personal bias of the witness giving information)
 Doubtful conclusion (due to carelessness of witnesses)
Collection of Data through Questionnaire
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquires. It is being
adopted by pvt. Individuals, research workers, pvt & public organisation & even by government.
In this method questions is send to the persons concerned with the request to answer the
questions & return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of number of questions printed
or typed in a definite form. The respondent has to answer the questions on their own.
Merits
 Low cost
 Free from bias
 Respondent have adequate time to answer
 Convenient method
 More reliable
Demerits
 Only use for educated respondents
 Limited information
 Controlled over questionnaire may be cost once it is sent
 Low rate of return
Qualities of Good Questionnaire
 Limited numbers of questions (limited as possible)
 Simplicity (should be simple & clear)
 Proper order of the questions
 No undesirable questions
 Calculations (must avoid calculation questions)
 Instructions (must shown while filling the form)
 Cross verification (ask question side by side)
 Request for return

25
Types of Questions
Simple alternative questions:- Yes or No, Good or Bad, Right or Wrong
Multiple choice questions:- when there are various possibilities of particular event, multiple
choice question are generally asked. A number of possibilities in answer are given to such
questions. The informant is to tick mark the one he fills fit.
For e.g.: what is your mode of conveyance from home to college?
o On foot
o Cycle
o Bus
o Scooter
o Car
Correct answer be (right) in the box
Specified information questions:- Only specific information is obtained through such questions.
For e.g.: In which class do you read?
Open questionnaire:- In this questions the informant is requested to give his view on specific
issues.
For e.g.: How can prices in India be controlled?
Collection of data through schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire
with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are to fill by enumerators who are
specifically appointed for this purpose. These enumerator goes along with the schedule, go to
the respondents put them the questions from the Performa in order the question are listed &
second the replies in the space meant for the same in the Performa. Enumerator explains the
aim & objectives of the investigation & also removes the difficulties which any respondent may
feel in understanding the particular questions or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
This method requires the selection of enumerator for filling up schedule or assisting responding
persons to fill up schedules & as such enumerator should be very carefully selected. The
enumerator should be trained to perform their job were understand the implication of different
question in the schedule.

26
This method is very useful in extensive inquires & can lead to fairly reliable result. It is
expensive methods of data collection.
Case Study Method
Case Study Method is a process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to
the development of a particular person, group or situation over a period of time.
This case study method is a very popular form of quantitative analysis & involves a careful &
complete observation of a social unit a person, a family, an institution, a culture group or even
the enter community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.
Assumption
 The assumption of uniformly in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human
behaviour vary according to the situation.
 The assumption of studying the natural lustre of the unit concerned.
 The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Process or Phases in Case Study
 Preconisation & determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or
the unit of attention.
 Collection of data & examination & history of given phenomenon.
 Diagnoses & identification of casual factor as bias for development treatment.
 Application for remedial or development measures (treatment & therapy).
 Follow up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.
Main Terminologies used in Data Collection
Population:- (The entire collection) In statistics the term population means the agreement of all
items about which we want to obtain the information.
For e.g.: There are 2000 students in a particular college. If an investigation relates to all 2000
students then 2000 would be taken as inverse or population.

27
Advantages & Disadvantages of Population Terminology
Merit Demerit
Reliable & Accurate Costly
Less biased Time consuming
Extensive information (detailed) Large manpower
Indirect investigation Not suitable for large investigation
Sample:- (it is a group of units selected from large group) In which data is collected in a ion
proportion of items from the population for examination and conclusion.
For e.g.: a lady in a kitchen, tests only a grain or two of rice to know that whether a rice is
boiled or not.
Or
By examine only a few drops of blood a doctor examine or determine the blood group of a
person.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Sample Terminology
Merits Demerits
Economical Partial
Time saving Wrong conclusion
Identification of error Difficulty in selecting & representative
sample
More scientific Specialized knowledge

28
Parameter:- A Parameter is a value usually unknown used to represent a certain population
characteristics.
For e.g.: one mean of the data in the sample is used to give information about the overall mean
in the population from which that sample is drawn.
Variable:- Any characteristics, number or quantity that can be measured or counted. It is also
known as data item. Age, sex, business income & expenses country of birth, eye cover, vehicle
are the example.
It is called variable because the value may vary between data unit in a population & may
change in value over time.

29
UNIT – IV
Data Analysis
Meaning
Data analysis is a process of evaluating data using analytical & logical reasoning to examine
each component of the data provided.
Data from various sources is gathered, reviewed & then analysed to form some sort of findings
or conclusion. There is a variety of specific data analysis method.
Need of Data Analysis
 To make the data in a meaningful form
 For decision making person
 To get some findings & conclusions
 To examine the research
 Helpful in understand/to make it (the data) in understand form
 To get some results
 To make the data more accurate & reliable
 Helpful in making reports
 Helpful in reducing biasness
 Helpful in making records in attractive manner in reports or comparisons
Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into
homogeneous group if we are to get meaningful relationships. Data having common
characteristics are placed in one class & in this way the entire data get divided into numbers of
group or classes.
It is of two types

30
Classification according to Attributes
Data are classified & analysed on the basis of common characteristics which can either be
descriptive (literacy sex, honesty etc are the example) or numerical (weight, height, income etc
are the example).
Descriptive characteristic refers to the qualitative phenomenon which can not be measured in
qualitative, only their presence & absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained
this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes.
Types
 Simple Classification
 Manifold Classification
TYPES OF
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO
ATTRIBUTES
CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO
CLASS-INTERVALS

31
Simple classification of attribute
In this we considered only ane attribute & divided the universe in 2 classes. One class consisting
of item possessing the given attribute & other class consisting of item which do not possess the
given attribute.
Manifold classification of attributes
We considered 2 or more attributes simultaneously & divided the data in to a number of
classes.
Whenever data is classified according to attributes, the researches must see that the attributes
are defined in such a manner that there is least possibility of any doubt/ambiguity concerning
the said attributes.
Classification According to the Class-Intervals
Unlike description characteristics the numerical characteristics refers to quantitative
phenomenon which can be measured though some statistical units. Data relating to income,
production, age, weight etc... Such data are known as statistic & are classified on the basis of
class intervals.
F____ incomes 10,000 – 20,000 will come in this group & person having income 20,000 –
40,000 will come in this group.
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO ATTRIBUTES
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION
OF ATTRIBUTES
MANIFOLD CLASSIFIACTION
OF ATTRIBUTES

32
In this way the entire data may be divided into number of groups or classes or what are usually
called CLASS-INTERVALS. Each group of class-interval thus has an upper limit & lower limit.
Which are known class limit?
For e.g.:10-20, 10 will be the lower limit & 20 will be the upper limit.
Tabulation
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange
the same in some kind of logical order. This procedure refers to as tabulation. Thus tabulation is
the process of summarising raw data of displaying the same in compact form for further
analysis. In a broaden sense tabulation is an arrangement of data in columns & rows.
Definition
According to Professor M.M Blaie, “Tabulation in its broadest sense is an orderly arrangement
of data in columns & rows.”
Why tabulation is essential / important
 It conserves space & reduces explanatory & descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitate the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items & detection of errors & omission
 It provides a basis for various statistical computation
Principles accepted for tabulation
 Table should be clear, understandable & there must be an adequate title for table
 Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference
 The row & column headings of the table must be clear
 The column may be numbered to facilitated reference
 Miscellaneous & excepted items should be usually place in the last row of the table
 Sources from where the data has been obtained must indicated just below the table
 The arrangement of the category in a table may be chronological, geographical, and
alphabetical or access to magnitude to facilitated compare

33
Components of table
 Table number
 Title
 Head note:-Completes the info other than title
 Stubs:-Title of a rows of a table
 Caption:-Title given to a columns of a table
 Body field:-Sum total of items in table
 Footnotes
 Source:-Name of publisher, year, page number, reference etc…
Body of
the table
Table no.:- ________________
Title:-____________________
(_________________________________________________) Headnotes
Column heading
column
cell cell cell
Footnotes:-________________________________
Sources:-__________________________________
Fig:- Format of table

34
Guidance for construction of a table
Or
Features of a good table
 Title as compatible with objective of study
 Comparison:- Between Rows & Columns
 Ideal size
 Stubs:-Must be on right/left hand side
 Use of zero:-Where there is unavailability of data
 Headings
 Footnotes:- Should be given only if it is needed
 Units:-Like ‘000’ hectare, ‘000’Rs, ‘000H’
 Percentage:-its make data more informative
 Source of data:- Next to footnote
 Size of column:- Must be uniform
 Simple & Attractive
Kinds of Table
KINDSOF TABLE
ACCORDINGTO
PURPOSE
GENERAL
PURPOSE
SPECIAL
PURPOSE
ACCORDINGTO
ORIGINALITY
ORIGINALTABLE
DERIVED TABLE
ACCORDINGTO
CONSTRUCTION
SIMPLE/ONE
WAY TABLE
COMPLEX TABLE
DOUBLE/TWO
WAY TABLE
TREBLE TABLE
MANIFOLD
TABLE

35
Tables according to the purpose
1. General Purpose Table
It is that table which is of general use. It does not serve any specific problem under
consideration such table are just data bank for the use of researcher for their various
studies. These tables are generally attached to some official reports like sensex reports of
India. These are also called reference report.
2. Special Purpose Table
These tables are prepared with some specific purpose in mind. Generally these are the
tables limited to the problem under consideration. In these tables data are presented in
the form of result of the analysis. That is why these tables are also called Summary
Tables.
Tables According to Originality
1. Original Data
It is that in which data are resented I the same form & manner in which they are
collected.
2. Derived Data
It is that in which data are not presented in the form or manner in which these are
collected. Intend a data are first converted into the rated or percentage & then
presented.
Tables According to Construction
1. Simple or One way table
Table which shows only one characteristic of the data
For e.g.:

36
Table
Number of students in the college:____________________
Class Number of Students
Xi 200
BA (I) 100
BA (II) 80
BA (III) 60
Total 440
2. Complex Table
It is one which shows more than one characteristic of the data.
Types
i. Double or two way table
This shows two characteristic of data
For e.g.:
Table:- Number of student in college according to sex & class
Class Boys Girls Total
BA (I) 40 60 100
BA (II) 60 20 80
BA (III) 50 10 60
XI 160 40 200
Total 310 130 440

37
ii. Treble Table
This shows three characteristics of data
For e.g.:-
Table:- Numbers of students in a village according to class, sex
Boys Girls Total
Class Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
XI 50 110 160 10 30 40 60 140
BA(I) 10 30 40 15 45 60 25 75
BA(II) 15 45 60 5 15 20 20 60
BA(III) 10 40 50 5 5 10 15 45
Total 85 225 310 35 95 130 120 320
iii. Manifold Table
Table which shows more than 3 characters of the data
e.g.: According to sex, class, habitation & martial status.
Merits of Tabular Presentation
 Simple & brief presentation
 Facilitates comparison
 Easy comparison
 Highlights characteristics of data
 Economical
Array : A discrete series or frequency array or array is that series in which data is presented
in a way that exact measurement of items are clearly shown. In such series there are no class
intervals & a particular item in the series is numbered rather than measured with same range.

38
For e.g.: 20 students of class XI have scored the following marks:
11 12 14 11 16 11 17 16 17 14 17 20 14 20 17 20 17 14 20
Present the data as a frequency array
Array / Frequency Array
Marks Tallybars of frequency
array
Frequency array total
11 III 3
12 I 1
14 IIII 4
16 II 2
17 IIII 5
20 IIII 4
Total 19
Range
It is the simplest method of measuring dispersion. Range is the difference between the highest
value & the lowest value.
R = H-L
Where, R = Range
H = Highest value in the series
L = Lowest value in the series
Merits
1. Simple

39
2. Wide appearance
Demerits
1. Unstable
2. Not based on all values
3. No knowledge of the formation of series
4. _________ for opened frequency distribution
Frequency Distribution
It is that series in which items can not exactly measured. The items assume a range of values &
are placed with the range or limits. In other words, data are classified in to different classes
with a range is called class interval.
For e.g.: Following table offer an example a frequency distribution. The table shown different
class intervals & correspond frequency.
Table:- Frequency Distribution
Marks Tally Bars Frequency
10 – 15 IIII 4
15 – 20 IIII 5
20 – 25 IIII III 8
25 – 30 IIII 5
30 – 35 IIII 4
35 – 40 II 2
40 – 45 I 1
45 – 50 I 1

40
Types of frequency distribution
1. Exclusive Frequency Series
It is that series which every class interval excludes items corresponding to its upper
limit.
For e.g.: 10 – 15, 20 – 25, 30 – 35, 15 – 20, 25 – 30 and 35 – 40
2. Inclusive Frequency Series
It is that series which includes all items up to upper limit.
For e.g.: 10 – 14, 15 – 19 and 20 – 24
3. Open- end Frequency Series
In which lower limit of the first class interval & the lower limit of class interval is missing.
For e.g.: Below 5, 5 -10, 10 – 15, 15 – 20, above 20
4. Cumulative Frequency Series
In which frequency are continuously added corresponding to each interval in class.
For e.g.:
Simple Frequency Series Cumulative Frequency Series
Marks Frequency Marks Cumulative
Frequency
5 – 10 3 5 – 10 3
TYPES OF
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
EXCLUSIVE
FREQUENCY
SERIES
INCLUSIVE
FREQUENCY
SERIES
OPEN-END
FREQUENCY
SERIES
COMMULATIVE
FREQUENCY
SERIES
MID-VALUE
FREQUENCY
SERIES

41
10 – 15 8 10 – 15 3+8= 11
15 – 20 9 15 – 20 11+9= 20
20 – 25 4 20 – 25 20+4= 24
25 - 30 4 25 - 30 24+4= 28
5. Mid-value Frequency Series
These are those series in which we have only mid-values of the class intervals & the
corresponding frequencies.
For e.g.:
Mid-value Frequency
5 6
15 5
25 11
35 9
45 8
Presentation of Data
1. Geometric form
a. Bar Diagram
Bar diagram are those diagrams in which data are presented in the form of bars or
rectangle.
Features
 Breadth of bars will remain same
 Equidistance between bars
 Common base line of all bars
 Presented in ascending or descending order
 To make the bar attractive, they may be shaped with pencil or column

42
Types of Bar Diagram
 Simple Bar Diagram
All those diagram which are based on single set of numerical data. It can be in
the form of horizontal & vertical form too.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
1991 1992 1993
Vertical Based Diagram
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A
B
C
D
HorizontalBar Diagram

43
 Multiple Bar Diagram
The entire diagram which shows 2 or more sets of data simultaneously.
Generally these diagrams are used to make comparison between the set of
series like birth & death series.
 Sub Divided or Differential Bar Diagram
Sub divide bar diagram are those diagram which simultaneously present total
values as well as part of a set of data. Different parts of bars are shaped with co
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
1921 - 30 1921 - 40 1921 - 50 1921 - 60

44
lours.
b. Pie Chart or Pie Diagram
Pie diagram is a circle divided into various segment showing the percent values of a
sites.
This diagram does not show absolute value.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2003 - 04 2004 - 05 2005 - 06 2006 - 07
Thermal Electricity
Hydro Electricity
Sales
1st Division
2nd Division
3rd Division
4th Division

45
2. Frequency Diagram
Histograms
This is drawn only when data are in the form of grouped frequency distributing when the data
is in the form of frequency distribution of continuos service.
Histogram is never drawn for a discrete service/ variable.
Polygon
Polygon is a diagrammatic presentation of data which is constructed by ______ the mid points
of the top of all rectangles in a histogram.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Category 1

46
Ogive/ Cumulative Frequency Curves
It is a curve which is constructed by a cumulative frequency data on the graph paper in the form
of smooth care.
Types / Way
i. Less Than Method
ii. More Than Method
Less than Ogive
Frequencies are added _______ from the upper limit of the 1st class interval of the frequency
distribution here to tend increase.
More than Ogive
Frequencies are added ________ from the lower limit of the class interval of frequency
distribution. Here to decrease.
Marks CF Marks CF
Less Than 5 4 More Than 0 100
Less Than 10 10(4+6) More Than 5 100-4= 96
Less Than 15 20(10+10) More Than 10 96-6= 90

47
Measurement of Central Tendency
Measures of initial tendency or statistical averages tell us the point about which items have a
tendency to cluster. Measure of central tendency also known as statistical average. Mean,
Median & Mode are most popular averages.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Less Than Ogive
Series 1
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
More Than Ogive

48
Mean
Mean are also known as arithmetic average.
Mean can be defined as the value we get by dividing the total of the values of various given
items. In a series by the total number of item
Formula:-
Mean X = Total sum of items
Total numbers of items
According to Clark, “an average is a figure that represents the whole group.”
Types of Mean / Arithmetic Mean
1. Simple arithmetic mean
In it an items of a series are given equal importance.
2. Weighted arithmetic mean
In it different item of a series occur different weights in accordance with their relative
importance. The weighted sum of the items is divided by the sum of weigh.
Demerits of mean
 Effect of extreme value
The main defect of arithmetic mean is that it gets distorted by extreme value of series.
Therefore it always ____ accurate measure
To illustrate, pocket expenditure of a rich student in case of x1 may be 2,000 which his four
friends ______ pocket expenditure Rs 100, Rs 80, Rs 70, Rs 50 respectively. The average pocket
expenditure of all the 5 students would be
X = 2000+100+80+70+50
50
X = 2300
5
X = 460 Rs

49
Mean value may not figure in the series at all
The average of 2, 3, 7 is 2+3+7/3=4
This is not there in the 3 series. It further tells the representative character.
 Laughable conclusion
Mean sometimes offer laughable conclusions. If there are 50 students in class XI
& 51 students in class XII the average strength of these 2 classes waited come to
50 + 51 / 2 = 50.5 students.
Which is indeed very funny because there can not be half student
 Unsuitability
Mean is not a suitable measure in case of percentage or proportionate value.
 Misleading conclusion
Mean sometimes offers ____________ conclusions.
Merits
 Simple to understand
 Free from the effect & extreme value
 Real value
 Accurate & reliable results
Demerits
 Less changes of graph presentation
 Not possible if incomplete data is available
 Lack of representative character
Median
According to Connor, “the median is that value of the variable which divides the group in to two
equal parts. One part comprises all values greater than the median value & the other part
comprising all the values smaller than the median values.”
Formula

50
M = size of N + 1 th item
2
Here, N = number of items
M = median
Merits
 Simplicity
 Free from effect of extreme values
 Graphic presentation
 Possible even when data is incomplete
Demerits
 Lack of representation character
 Unrealistic
 Lack of algebraic treatment
Mode
According to Kenny, “The value of the variable which occurs most frequently in the distribution
is called mode.”
Or
According to Croxton, “The mode may be regarded as the most typical of a series of value.”
For e.g.:
Age of 15 students of a class is reported below. Find the modal age?
Age (years) 22, 24, 17, 18, 17, 19, 18, 21, 20, 21, 20, 23, 22, 22 and 22
Solution:-Arrange the series in ascending order as:
17 21
17 22
18 22
18 22

51
19 22
20 23
20 24
21
An inspection of the series shows that 22 occurs most frequently I the series.
Hence Mode, (Z) = 22
Merits
 Simple & popular
 Less effect of marginal values
 Graphical determination
 Best representation
 No need of knowing all items
Demerits
 Uncertainty & vague
 Not capable of algebraic treatment
 Difficult
 Complex procedure
 Ignores extreme marginal frequencies
Dispersion
According to Dr. Bowley, “Dispersion is the measure of the variation of the item.”
Or
According to Spiegel, “The degree to which numerical data to tend to spread about an average
value is called the variation or dispersion of data”
Objectives related to the measurement of dispersion
 To know the variation of different value of the items from the average value of the
series
 To know the range of the values (different between the highest & lowest value)

52
 To know whether the central tendency truly represent the series or not
 To compare between 2 or more series in order to find out the degree of variation
Method of measuring dispersion
a. Range
It is the simplest method of measuring dispersion. Range is the difference between the highest
value & the lowest value.
R = H-L
Where, R = Range
H = Highest value in the series
L = Lowest value in the series
Merits
1. Simple
2. Wide appearance
Demerits
1. Unstable
2. Not based on all values
3. No knowledge of the formation of series
4. _________ for opened frequency distribution
b. Quartile derivation
In a distribution partial variance between the upper quartile & lower quartile is known
as quartile derivation. It is also known as inter-quartile range & semi-inter quartile
range.
Formula
Inter-quartile range = Q3 - Q1/2
=upper quartile – lower quartile
Upper quartile = 400

53
Lower quartile = 200
Q.D = (400 – 200)/2 = 200/2 = 100
Merits
 Simple
 Less effect of extreme values
Demerits
 Not based on all values
 Formations of series are not known
 Instability
c. Mean deviation
In the word of dark & _________, mean deviation is the arithmetic average of all the
values taken from a statistic average (Mean, Median and Mode) of series. In taking
deviation of values, algebraic signs & are not taken in to consideration, that is negative
deviation are also treated as positive deviation.
Formula
MD m = E X – M if derivative are taken median
N
MD X = E X – X if derivative are taken arithmetic
N
Here MD = Mean derivation
X – M = Deviation from median
X – X = Deviation from mean
N = Number of items
Merits
 Simple
 Based on all values
 Less effect on extreme values

54
Demerits
 In accuracy
 Not capable of algebraic treats
 Unreliable
d. Standard deviation
In the word of Spiegel, “The standard deviation is the square root of the A.M (arithmetic
mean) of the square of all deviation. Deviations being measured from arithmetic mean
of the item.”
Merits
 Based on all values
 Certain measure
 Little effect of a change in sample
 Algebraic treatment
Demerits
 Difficult
 More importance to extreme values
e. Lorenz curve
Lorenz curve is a not important measure of variability of the statistical series. This curve
was used by Max Lorenz hence it called Lorenz curve. These curves are generally used to
measure variability in the distribution of income & wealth.
Parameter/Application/Uses of Lorenz curve
 Distribution of Income
 Distribution of Wealth
 Distribution of Wages
 Distribution of Project
 Distribution of Production

55
 Distribution of Population
Correlation
Definition
It is a statistical method a technique that measures quantitative relationship between different
variable like between price & demand.
Or
According to Boddington, “Whenever some definite connection exists between the 2 or more
groups, classes or series of data there is said to be correlation.”
Types
1. Positive or Negative Correlation
When 2 variables more in the same direction that is when one increase the other also
increases & one decrease then the other also decreases such relation is called Positive
Correlation.
When 2 variables change I different directions, it is called Negative Correlation.
2. Linear & Non-Linear Correlation
When 2 variables change in constant proportion is called Linear Correlation. This is
straight line relationship.
When 2 variables do not change in any constant proportion, the relationship is said to
be Non-Linear Correlation. Such a relationship does not form a straight line
relationship.
3. Simple & Multiple Correlation
Implies the study relationship between 2 variables only
For e.g.: Price & Demand
Hence a relationship between 3 or more than 3 variables
For e.g.: effect of rainfall

56
Importance of correlation
 Formation of laws & concept
 Cause & effect relationship
 Business decisions
 Policy formulation
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a statical process for estimating the relationship among variables. It
includes many techniques for modelling & analysing several variables. When the focus is a
relationship between dependent & independent variables
Definition
A statistical measure that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between one
dependent variable & a series of other changing variables that is independent variables
Types
1. Simple regression analysis
In simple regression analysis we have only 2 variables are independent is the cause of
the behaviour of other are dependent variable
2. Multiple Regression Analysis
When there are 2 or more in a 2 independent variables.

57
UNIT – V
Interpretation & Report Writing
Meaning
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects
 The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study
with those of another.
 The establishment of explanatory
Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in course of the study can be better understood & it also provide the
theatrical concept on which can seme as a guide for further research.
Definition
According to C. Willian Emory, Interpretation can be defined as the device through the factors,
which seem to explain what has been observed by the researcher in the course of study, can be
better understood.
Significance
 Enables the researcher to have an in depth knowledge about the abstract principle
behind its own f______.
 The researcher is enabling to understand his findings & research behind their existence.
 More understanding & knowledge can be obtained with the help of the further
research.
 Provides very good guidance in the studies relating to the research work.
 Sometimes may result in the formation of hypothesis.
Techniques
The task of interpretation is not an easy job; rather it requires a great skill & dexterity on the
part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one through practice & experience. The

58
researcher may at times, seek the guidance from experts from accomplishing the task of
interpretation.
The techniques of interpretation involve the proper steps:-
 Research must give reasonable explanation of the relations which he has found & he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes. In fact, this
is the technique of how generalization should be done & concepts be formulated.
 Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem ender consideration.
 It is advisable before embanking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having
insight into the study& who is frank & honest & will not hesitate to point out omission &
error in logical argumentation, such a consultation will result in correct interpretation &
this will enhance the utility of research result.
 Research must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while
interpreting results, for quite often its conclusions. Which appear to be all right at the
beginning may not all be accurate?
Report Writing
According to Oxford, “A statement of the result of an investigation or of any other matter on
which definite information is required” & importantly it is designed to help other.
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented or written.
Significance/Importance of Report Writing
Report provides consolidated & updated information:-
A report provides considerate, factual & up to date information about a particular matter or
subject. Information in a report is will organized & can be used for future planning & decision
making.
Report as a means of Internal Communication:-

59
A report act as a effective means of communication with in the organization it provides
feedback to employees. It is prepared for the information & guidance of others connected with
the matter/problem.
Report Facilitating Decision Making & Planning:-
Report provides reliable data which can be used in the planning & can be used in the planning
making process. It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning &
decision making.
Report Disclose Unknown Information:-
Report provides information which may not be known previously. The researchers collect data
& drawn conclusions & provide information which will be new to all concerned parties. Even
new bus, opportunities are visible through unknown information available in the reports.
Report gives information to employees:-
Report are available to manage & departments for internal use. They are widely used by the
departments for guidance. Reports provide a feedback to employees & are useful for their self
improvements also.
Report gives reliable permanent information:-
The information provide by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the
office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years).
Report facilitation of personal policies:-
Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as
promotion, policy, training policy & welfare facilities to employees.
Report solves current problems:-
Report are useful to manage or researcher while dealing with current problems faced by the
company. They provide guidance while dealing with complicated problems.

60
Process or Steps in Report Writing
Step 1 – Logical Analysis of the subject matter
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are
two ways in which to develop a subject.
1. Logically development
2. Chronological development
Logically Development is made on the mental connectors & associations between the one
thing & another by means of analysis.
Chronological Development is based a connection or sequence in time or occurrence.
Step 2 – Preparation of Final Outlines
It is the next step in writing report, “Outlines are the framework upon which long written works
are constructed. They are aid to the logical organisation of the material & a reminder of the
points to be stressed in the report.”
Step 3 – Preparation of Rough Draft
This follows the logical analysis of the subject & preparation of the final outline such a step is of
outmost important for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context
of his research study along with the limitation faced by him. The technique of analysis adopted
by him, the broad funding & various suggestion he want to offer regarding the problem
concerned.
STEPS IN REPORT
WRITING
LOGICALLY
DEVELOPMENT
CHRONOLOGIC
ALLY
DEVELOPMENT

61
Step 4 – Rewriting & Polishing of the Rough Draft
This step happens to the most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more
time than the writing the draft (rough draft). The careful revision makes the difference between
a mediocre & a good piece of writing while rewriting & polishing. One should check the report
for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. In addition, researcher should give
attention due to the fact that in this rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check
the mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling & usage.
Step 5 – Preparation of the Final Bibliography
Next in the order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography
which is generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some way from where
the research has been done. It should contain the researches has consulted.
Step 6 – Writing the Final Draft
The final draft should be in the written in a concise & objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be” & like otherwise. A report
should not be dull, but must enthuses people & maintain interest & must show originally &
there must be a proper solution of the problem for which the report has been prepared.
Types of Reports
TYPES OF
REPORTS
TECHNICAL
REPORT
POPULAR
REPORT

62
a. Technical Report
The main emphasis is on:-
 The method employed
 Assumptions made in course of the study
 The detailed presentation of the findings includes their limitations & supporting data
The general outlines of a technical report can be as follows:-
1. Summary of Result
A brief review of the main findings first in 2 or3 pages
2. Nature of the Study
Description of the general objectives of the study, formulation of the problem in
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis & data required etc
3. Method Employed
Specific methods used in the study & their limitations. For instance in sampling studies
we should give details of sample design, sample size, sample selection etc.
4. Data
Discussions of data collected their sources, characteristics & limitations, if secondary
data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of
survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data & presentation of findings
The analysis of data & presentation of findings of the study with supporting data in the
form tables & charts be fully narrated.
6. Conclusion
A detailed summary of findings & the policy implications drawn from the results are
explained.
7. Bibliography
Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared & attached.

63
8. Technical Appendices
Appendices are given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematics
derivations, collaboration particular technique of analysis & like ones.
9. Index
Index must be prepared & given in variably in the report at the end.
b. Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis & attractiveness. The simplification should be
rough through clear writing minimizing of technical, particularly mathematical, details & liberal
use of charts & diagrams.
Attractive layout along with large print many subheadings evens occasional cartoons now &
then is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
We give below a general outline of a popular report:-
 The findings & implications
 Recommendation for actions
 Objective of the study
 Methods employed
 Results technical appendices
Findings
The information that you discover or opinions that you form after doing research
Or
The act of a person or thing that finds or discovered
This is where you indicate & what you have found in your research. You give the result of your
of research. This is where you discuss the relevance of your result & how you finding fit with
other research in the area. It will relate back to your literature review & your introductory
thesis statement.

64
For e.g.: The researcher did the research about the taste & preference regarding the cold drinks
brands at the end we will analysis the data, what the results he will get it will be the findings
one.
Suggestions
Suggestion is the psychological process by which person or researcher guides the thoughts,
feeling or behaviour of another.
This may include what needs to be done as a result of your find ends suggestions &
recommendations are usually listed in order of priority & it is given in report for future
improvement purpose.
For e.g.: in an area there is a restaurant where there are more vegetarian items get served
comparatively non-vegetarian & the sale of the business as going down day by day then after
doing research they come to know the people in this area prefer more non-vegetarian food &
after findings & results the suggestion is to provide more non-vegetarian in terms to increase
the business.
Conclusion
This is the summary of the most significant result or findings. You should not include any new
material in this section. Sometimes you could indicate some area where your research has
limits or where further research would be useful.
Whatever we have done research & the finding, results, suggestions regarding that is written as
a summary at the end of the report i.e. called the conclusion.

Research Methods and Process

Empfohlen

Empfohlen

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Was ist angesagt? (20)

Andere mochten auch

Andere mochten auch (8)

Ähnlich wie Research Methods and Process

Ähnlich wie Research Methods and Process (20)

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Research Methods and Process