1. Comparison of Abilities Human eye Light microscope Transmission Electron Microscope

2. Levels of Organisation Living Organisms systems organs tissues cells Biomolecules Organic carbohydrates proteins lipids nucleic acids Inorganic Ions Water (inorganic)

3. Levels of Organisation Biomolecules Organic carbohydrates proteins lipids nucleic acids Inorganic Ions Water (inorganic) simple sugars amino acids fatty acids nucleotides glycerol

4. Cells!

6. What all cells need to do Make specific Biomacromolecules Control and regulate chemical Reactions Produce energy to drive Chemical reactions Take in small molecules Produce useful products for export from the cell Receive and respond to chemical signals Remove waste products Grow, reproduce and pass on genetic information to the next generation of cells

10. Animal Cells

11. Plant Cells

15. WATER

16. A little chemistry … Covalent bonding involves atoms joining to form molecules In order to form a stable molecule, each atom must share sufficient electrons in order to result in a full outer shell If an atom only has one shell of electrons, 2 is sufficient to fill it The second shell and onwards all require a minimum of 8 electrons in order to achieve stability

18. Oxygen has an atomic number of 8

20. Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1

21. A little chemistry … … and a hydrogen atom contains 1 proton and 1 electron So an oxygen atom contains 8 protons and 8 electrons

22. A little chemistry … When oxygen and hydrogen bond, the hydrogen is stable, it has a full outer shell … but the oxygen is still left short one electron

23. A little chemistry … This allows an additional hydrogen atom to bond with the oxygen … thus creating a stable molecule

24. A little chemistry … Thus we achieve the structure of a water molecule: One oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms

27. Water molecules are cohesive -> they form hydrogen bonds Substances that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic or polar Substances that are insoluble in water are called hydrophobic or non-polar

28. Monomers: Polymers: Sugars Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides) Amino Acids Proteins Fatty acids & glycerol Lipids Nucleotides Nucleic Acids

30. Glucose, Fructose Sucrose, Lactose Starch, Glycogen & Cellulose

31. hexose shape pentose shape Mostly ends in –ose C, H, O => organic Condensation reaction

41. Triglycerides Phospholipids

43. Other than phospholipids, which contain P, most others will only contain C, H & O

44. DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid RNA: ribonucleic acid

45. Nucleic acids contain C, H & O in addition to N & P SUGAR PHOSPHATE

46. DNA: Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) RNA: Adenine (A) Uracil (U) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)

47. Differences between DNA & RNA DNA RNA A, C, G, T A, C, G, U Paired strands Single strand H + at 2’ OH - at 2’

50. 3 groups: Amino group, Carboxyl group & R-group When joined together they form peptide bonds Aside from the C, H, O & N in the base molecule, the R group may also contain S & P

52. Primary structure: Secondary structure:

53. Tertiary structure: Quaternary structure:

56. Biomacromolecule Type of bonding Carbohydrates Glycosidic bond Lipids Ester bond Nucleic acids Phosphodiester bond Proteins Peptide bond