2. Types of linkers
• Go to page 11 on your book and
test what you already know
about linkers.
3. Can you think of some
of them?
Types of linkers
Linkers can introduce:
• A result
• A reason
• A purpose
• A contrast
4. • although / even though
/ though
• as
• as a result
• because
• because of
• but
• consequently
• despite
• despite the fact that
• due to
• however
• in case
• in order not to
• in order to
• in spite of
• nevertheless
• owing to
• since
• so
• so (that)
• so as not to
• so as to
• therefore
• to
• yet
Classify the linkers
into result, reason,
purpose and
contrast.
5. Work with the examples provided
• Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet something
in her head was telling her not to get close to him.
• In spite of being 85, she still travels all over the
world. / Despite her age… / Despite the fact that
she’s 85…
• Flight 341 has been delayed due to / owing to
adverse weather conditions.
• I did a language course to / in order to / so as to
improve my English.
• I have a job interview next week, so I’ve bought
myself a suit!
• Etc.
Figure out the rules for the linkers.
Find out if:
• they are followed by a noun, a
clause, a gerund, an infinitive etc.
• they are used in the beginning of
a sentence, etc.
• if they are followed by a comma.
• if they are formal or informal.
7. result1. I have a job interview next week,
so I’ve bought myself a suit!
2. ...
8. result1. I have a job interview next week, so I’ve
bought myself a suit!
2. It had snowed hard all night. As a
result, the airport was closed until 11.00
a.m.
We regret that you do not have the
necessary qualifications and therefore /
consequently we are unable to offer you
the job.
We have therefore / consequently
decided not to offer you the job.
1. So is the most common way
of introducing a result or a
logical connection.
2. As a result, therefore and
consequently are more
formal than so. They are
used at the beginning of a
sentence or before a main
verb.
9. result
• Sales have increased over the last
three months. So / Therefore we will
be taking on five new employees.
Choose the better option
according to register.
10. result
• Sales have increased over the last
three months. So / Therefore we will
be taking on five new employees.
Choose the better option
according to register.
Therefore is
more formal.
11. result
• The organization has severe
financial problems, and so /
consequently half the staff have
been laid off.
Choose the better option
according to register.
12. result
• The organization has severe
financial problems, and so /
consequently half the staff have
been laid off.
Choose the better option
according to register.
13. reason
1. I have stopped writing to her,
because / as / since she never
answers me.
• Etc.
14. reason
1. I have stopped writing to her,
because / as / since she never
answers me.
Why did your boss resign? Because
her wife was ill.
2. The plane was late because of the
fog.
Flight 341 has been delayed due to /
owing to adverse weather conditions.
The politician decided to resign
owing to having been involved in
corruption cases.
As and since are often used at
the beginning of a sentence.
Since is more formal.
We use because (not as or
since) to answer a Why…?
question.
15. reason
1. I have stopped writing to her,
because / as / since she never
answers me.
Why did your boss resign? Because
her wife was ill.
2. The plane was late because of the
fog.
Flight 341 has been delayed due to /
owing to adverse weather conditions.
The politician decided to resign
owing to having been involved in
corruption cases.
Because of, due to and owing
to are followed by a noun, a
gerund or the fact that +
clause.
16. reason
• The plane was delayed because
of it was too windy.
Right or wrong?
17. reason
• The plane was delayed because
of it was too windy.
• The plane was delayed because
of the strong wind.
Right or wrong?
18. reason
• It has been announced that the
last match of the season has
been cancelled due to the
severe weather.
Right or wrong?
19. reason
• It has been announced that the
last match of the season has
been cancelled due to the
severe weather.
Right or wrong?
20. reason
• I’ve been off work for the last
three days owing to this nasty
cough I’ve got.
Right or wrong?
21. reason
• I’ve been off work for the last
three days owing to this nasty
cough I’ve got.
• I’ve been off work for the last
three days because of this
nasty cough I’ve got.
Right or wrong?
22. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. Etc.
23. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. She closed the door quietly so as
not to / in order not to wake the
baby.
3. They moved to London so (that)
they could see their grandchildren
more often.
4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case
she tells everyone else.
24. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. She closed the door quietly so as
not to / in order not to wake the
baby.
3. They moved to London so (that)
they could see their grandchildren
more often.
4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case
she tells everyone else.
+ infinitive
25. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. She closed the door quietly so as
not to / in order not to wake the
baby.
3. They moved to London so (that)
they could see their grandchildren
more often.
4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case
she tells everyone else.
+ infinitive
For negative purpose
26. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. She closed the door quietly so as
not to / in order not to wake the
baby.
3. They moved to London so (that)
they could see their grandchildren
more often.
4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case
she tells everyone else.
+ can / could
+ will / would
Leave out that in
informal English
27. purpose
1. I did a language course to / in
order to / so as to improve my
English.
2. She closed the door quietly so as
not to / in order not to wake the
baby.
3. They moved to London so (that)
they could see their grandchildren
more often.
4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case
she tells everyone else.
+ clause
When we do something in
order to be ready for future
situations
28. purpose
• We only use energy-efficient light
bulbs. We don’t want to waste
electricity. So as
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
29. purpose
• We only use energy-efficient light
bulbs. We don’t want to waste
electricity. So as
• We only use energy-efficient light
bulbs so as not to waste energy.
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
30. purpose
• I took the price off the bag. I didn’t
want Becky to know how much it
had cost. so
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
31. purpose
• I took the price off the bag. I didn’t
want Becky to know how much it
had cost. So
• I took the price off the bag so that
Becky wouldn’t know how much it
had cost.
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
32. purpose
• Keep the receipt for the sweater.
Your dad might not like it. In case
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
33. purpose
• Keep the receipt for the sweater.
Your dad might not like it. In case
• Keep the receipt for the sweater in
case your dad doesn’t like it.
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
35. contrast
• We enjoyed the concert, but the journey home
was a nightmare.
• Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet
something in her head was telling her not to
get close to him.
• It’s a really good idea. However, it may be too
expensive.
• The moon shone brightly. Nevertheless, it was
hard to find our way.
• We enjoyed the film although / even though /
though it was long.
• In spite of being 85, she still travels all over
the world.
• Despite her age…
• Despite the fact that she’s 85…
36. contrast
• We enjoyed the concert, but the journey
home was a nightmare.
• Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet
something in her head was telling her not
to get close to him.
But is more common
and informal.
Yet is more formal,
and literary.
37. contrast
• It’s a really good idea. However, it may be
too expensive.
• The moon shone brightly. Nevertheless, it
was hard to find our way.
They’re used at the beginning of
a sentence to connect to to the
previous one and are usually
followed by a comma.
Nevertheless (or nonetheless) is
more formal.
38. contrast
• We enjoyed the film although / even
though / though it was long.
• We enjoyed the film. It was long, though.
Even though is more
emphatic than although.
though is more common in
informal speech and can be
used at the end of the
sentence.
39. contrast
• In spite of being 85, she still travels all
over the world.
• Despite her age…
• Despite the fact that she’s 85…
After in spite of and despite
use a gerund…
… a noun…
…or the fact that +
clause.
40. contrast
• Our seats were a long way from the
stage. We enjoyed the play. In spite
of
• We …
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
41. contrast
• Our seats were a long way from the
stage. We enjoyed the play. In spite
• We enjoyed the play in spite of our
seats being a long way from the
stage.
• We enjoyed the play in spite of the
fact that our seats were a long way
from the stage.
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
42. contrast
• Susanna is an only child. She isn’t
at all spoilt. Even though
• Susanna…
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
43. contrast
• Susanna is an only child. She isn’t
at all spoilt. Even though
• Susanna isn’t at all spoilt even
though she’s an only child.
Join the sentences using
the bold word(s), making
any necessary changes.
