Wulan xi iis 2 english

WULAN YULIANASARI
XI - IIS 2
ENGLISH

8. PUNCTUATION
3. PREPOSITION
4.PREFERENS
6. TELLING TIME
7. GREETINGS
9. MINIMAL PAIRS
2. ARTICLE
5. DEGREES OF
COMPARISON
1. TYPE OF WORD

Type of Noun
What is a Noun?
Of all the parts of speech, nouns are perhaps the most important. A noun is a word that identifies
person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what makes a noun a noun,
and we’ll provide some noun examples, along with some advice for using nouns in your sentences.
Identifying a Noun
A noun is a part of speech that denotes a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. The English word
noun has its roots in the Latin word nomen, which means “name.” Every language has words that
are nouns. As you read the following explanations, think about some words that might fit into each
category.
• Person – A term for a person, whether proper name, gender, title, or class, is a noun.
• Animal – A term for an animal, whether proper name, species, gender, or class is a noun.
• Place – A term for a place, whether proper name, physical location, or general locale is a noun.
• Thing – A term for a thing, whether it exists now, will exist, or existed in the past is a noun.
• Idea – A term for an idea, be it a real, workable idea or a fantasy that might never come to fruition
is a noun.
Noun Examples
When we first start to learn the parts of speech, trying to identify different words can seem like a
challenge. This process gets easier with practice. Here are some noun examples to help you get
started. The nouns in each sentence have been italicized.

• Person – He is the person to see.
• Person – John started to run.
• Person – Plato was an influential Greek philosopher.
• Person – Sharon admires her grandfather.
• Person – My mother looks a lot like my grandmother, and I look very much like them.
• Animal – The dog barked at the cat.
• Animal – Elephants never forget.
• Animal – Sophie is my favorite horse.
• Place – The restaurant is open.
• Place – Let’s go to the beach.
• Place – Look over there.
• Place – Come here.
• Place – Harvard and Yale are two famous universities.
• Place – Look! There’s the Eiffel Tower.
• Thing – Throw the ball.
• Thing – Please close the door and lock it.
• Thing – Use words properly to be understood.
• Thing – The lamp sits on a table next to the sofa.
• Thing – Money doesn’t grow on trees.
• Idea – Follow the rules.
• Idea – The theory of relativity is an important concept.
• Idea – Love is a wonderful emotion.

Type of Verbs
Before you begin the verb tense lessons, it is extremely important to
understand that NOT all English verbs are the same. English verbs are divided
into three groups: Normal Verbs, Non-Continuous Verbs, and Mixed Verbs.
Group I Normal Verbs
Most verbs are "Normal Verbs." These verbs are usually physical actions
which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all
tenses.
Normal Verbs
to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.
Examples:
I eat dinner every day.
I am eating dinner now.
Group II Non-Continuous Verbs
The second group, called "Non-Continuous Verbs," is smaller. These verbs are
usually things you cannot
see somebody doing. These verbs are rarely used in continuous tenses. They
include:
Abstract Verbs
to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to need, to care, to contain, to owe, to
exist...
Possession Verbs
to possess, to own, to belong...

Possession Verbs
• to possess, to own, to belong...
Emotion Verbs
• to like, to love, to hate, to dislike, to fear, to envy, to mind...
• Examples:
• He is needing help now. Not Correct
• He needs help now. Correct
• He is wanting a drink now. Not Correct
• He wants a drink now. Correct
Group III Mixed Verbs
• The third group, called "Mixed Verbs," is the smallest group. These verbs have more than one meaning. In a way,
each meaning is a unique verb. Some meanings behave like "Non-Continuous Verbs," while other meanings behave
like "Normal Verbs."
Mixed Verbs
• to appear, to feel, to have, to hear, to look, to see, to weigh...
List of Mixed Verbs with Examples and Definitions:
• to appear:
• Donna appears confused. Non-Continuous Verb
Donna seems confused.
• My favorite singer is appearing at the jazz club tonight. Normal Verb
My favorite singer is giving a performance at the jazz club tonight.
• to have:
• I have a dollar now. Non-Continuous Verb
I possess a dollar.
• I am having fun now. Normal Verb
I am experiencing fun now.

to hear:
• She hears the music. Non-Continuous Verb
She hears the music with her ears.
• She is hearing voices. Normal Verb
She hears something others cannot hear. She is hearing voices in her mind.
to look:
• Nancy looks tired. Non-Continuous Verb
She seems tired.
• Farah is looking at the pictures. Normal Verb
She is looking with her eyes.
to miss:
• John misses Sally. Non-Continuous Verb
He is sad because she is not there.
• Debbie is missing her favorite TV program. Normal Verb
She is not there to see her favorite program.
to see:
• I see her. Non-Continuous Verb
I see her with my eyes.
• I am seeing the doctor. Normal Verb
I am visiting or consulting with a doctor. (Also used with dentist and lawyer.)
• I am seeing her. Normal Verb
I am having a relationship with her.
• He is seeing ghosts at night. Normal Verb
He sees something others cannot see. For example ghosts, aura, a vision of the future, etc.

to smell:
• The coffee smells good. Non-Continuous Verb
The coffee has a good smell.
• I am smelling the flowers. Normal Verb
I am sniffing the flowers to see what their smell is
like.
to taste:
• The coffee tastes good. Non-Continuous Verb
The coffee has a good taste.
• I am tasting the cake. Normal Verb
I am trying the cake to see what it tastes like.
to think:
• He thinks the test is easy. Non-Continuous Verb
He considers the test to be easy.
• She is thinking about the question. Normal Verb
She is pondering the question, going over it in her
mind.
to weigh:
• The table weighs a lot. Non-Continuous Verb
The table is heavy.
• She is weighing herself. Normal Verb
She is determining her weight.

Some Verbs Can Be Especially Confusing:
to be:
• Joe is American. Non-Continuous Verb
Joe is an American citizen.
• Joe is being very American. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving like a stereotypical American.
• Joe is being very rude. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving very rudely. Usually he is not rude.
• Joe is being very formal. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving very formally. Usually he is not formal.
NOTICE: Only rarely is "to be" used in a continuous form. This is most commonly done
when a person is temporarily behaving badly or stereotypically. It can also be used
when someone's behavior is noticeably different.
• to feel:
• The massage feels great. Non-Continuous Verb
The massage has a pleasing feeling.
• I don't feel well today. Sometimes used as Non-Continuous Verb
I am a little sick.
I am not feeling well today. Sometimes used as Normal Verb
I am a little sick.
• NOTICE: The second meaning of "feel" is very flexible and there is no real
difference in meaning between "I don't feel well today" and "I am not feeling well
today."

Definition of Articles
• An article is a word used to modify a noun, which is a person, place, object, or idea. Technically, an article is an adjective, which
is any word that modifies a noun. Usually adjectives modify nouns through description, but articles are used instead to point
out or refer to nouns. There are two different types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to point out or refer to a
noun or group of nouns: definite and indefinite articles.
USE 1
• The article A is used before singular, countable nouns which begin with consonant sounds.
Examples:
• He is a teacher.
• She doesn't own a car.
• I saw a bear at the zoo.
USE 2
• The article AN is used before singular, countable nouns which begin with vowel sounds.
Examples:
• He is an actor.
• She didn't get an invitation.
• I saw an eagle at the zoo.
USE 3
• Remember that A(AN) means "one" or "a single". You cannot use A(AN) with plural nouns.
Examples:
• I saw a bears in Yellowstone National Park. Not Correct
• I saw bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct
USE 4
• If there is an adjective or an adverb-adjective combination before the noun, A(AN) should agree with the first sound in the
adjective or the adverb-adjective combination.
Examples:
• He is an excellent teacher.
• I saw a really beautiful eagle at the zoo.

USE 5
• Use A before words such as "European" or "university" which sound like they start with a consonant even if the
first letter is a vowel. Also use A before letters and numbers which sound like they begin with a consonant, such
as "U", "J", "1" or "9". Remember, it is the sound not the spelling which is important. For example, "1" is spelled
O-N-E; however, it is pronounced "won" like it starts with a "W".
Examples:
• She has a euro. Sounds like "yu-ro".
• That number is a "1". Sounds like "won".
USE 6
• Use AN before words such as "hour" which sound like they start with a vowel even if the first letter is a
consonant. Also use AN before letters and numbers which sound like they begin with a vowel, such as "F" or "8".
Remember, it is the sound not the spelling which is important. For example, "F" is pronounced "eff" like it starts
with an "E".
Examples:
• I only have an hour for lunch. Sounds like "au-er".
• Does his name begin with an "F"? Sounds like "eff".
USE 7
• Some words such as "herb" or "hospital" are more complicated because they are pronounced differently in
different English accents. In most American accents, the "h" in "herb" is silent, so Americans usually say "an
herb". In many British accents, the "h" in "herb" is pronounced, so many British say "a herb". In some British
accents, the "h" in hospital is silent, so some British will say "an hospital" instead of "a hospital".
USE 8
• In English, some nouns are considered uncountable such as: information, air, advice, salt and fun. We do not use
A(AN) with these uncountable nouns. (Learn more about countable and uncountable nouns.)
Examples:
• She gives a good advice. Not Correct
• She gives good advice. Correct

USE 9
• A and AN are called indefinite articles. "Indefinite" means "not specific". Use A(AN) when you are talking about a thing in general, NOT a specific thing.
• Examples:
• I need a phone. Not a specific phone, any phone
• Mark wants a bicycle. Not a particular bicycle, a bicycle in general
• Do you have a driver's license? In general
• Use A(AN) when talking about a thing which is new, unknown, or introduced to a listener for the first time. Also use A(AN) when you are asking about
the existence of something.
Examples:
• I have a car. The car is being introduced for the first time.
• Tom is a teacher. This is new information to the listener.
• Is there a dictionary in your backpack? Asking about the existence of the dictionary
• Similarly, use A(AN) to introduce what type of thing we are talking about.
• Examples:
• That is an excellent book. Describing the kind of book
• Do you live in a big house? Asking about the kind of house
• I ate a thick, juicy steak. Describing the kind of steak
• REMEMBER: You cannot use A(AN) with plural nouns because A(AN) means "one" or "a single".
• Examples:
• I saw a bears in Yellowstone National Park. Not Correct
• I saw bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct
USE 10
• THE is called a definite article. "Definite" means "specific". Use THE when talking about something which is already known to the listener or which has
been previously mentioned, introduced, or discussed.
• Examples:
• I have a cat. The cat is black.
• There is a book in my backpack. The book is very heavy.
• Do you know where I left the car keys? The listener knows which specific car keys you are talking about.
• Do you own a car? Is the car blue? You assume they do have a car after asking about it in the first sentence.
• Nobody lives on the Moon. The Moon is known to everyone.
• IMPORTANT: You can use THE with both singular nouns and plural nouns.
Examples:
• I saw the bear in Yellowstone National Park. Correct
• I saw the bears in Yellowstone National Park. Correct

USE 11
• Many clauses and phrases make the noun known to the listener by telling the listener which person or thing we are
talking about. Let's look at an example sentence:
• Can you give me the book on the table.
• We use THE in this sentence because the phrase "on the table" tells the listener which book we are referring to. We are
not talking about other books, we are talking about a specific book that the listener can see or already knows about.
Learning to recognize such identifying clauses and phrases will help you use THE correctly.
Examples:
• Did you read the book which I gave you?
• He didn't like the movie that you suggested.
• He loved the dessert with chocolate and cherries.
• The phone on my desk belongs to Ken.
• Did you know the man who was talking to Leonie?
HOWEVER: Not all clauses and phrases make the noun known to the listener. Some are simply descriptive. They add extra
information, but they do not tell the listener which specific thing we are talking about.
Examples:
• He bought the house with a big backyard. This combination tells the listener which specific house he bought.
• He bought a house with a big backyard. This combination tells the listener what kind of house he bought, but not the
specific house he bought.
USE 12
• A(AN) can be used like the word "per".
Examples:
• Apples currently cost $1.30 a pound.
• Cheetahs can run 60 miles an hour.
• You want $150 a person for the tour?
USE 13
• Use THE with nouns modified by ranking or ordering expressions such as "the first", "the second", "the third", "the
next", "the last", "the previous", "the following", "the penultimate", etc.
• Examples:
• This is the fifth day of our conference.
• I'll pay the next time we have dinner.
• Don't forget the following rule.

USE 14
• Use THE with superlatives such as "the best", "the biggest", "the most important", "the least
interesting", etc.
Examples:
• This is the best day ever.
• That is the most expensive hotel room I've ever heard of in my life.
• He told the funniest joke!
• Comparative forms, such as "bigger", "better", "more" can be used with both A(AN) and THE and follow
general article usage.
Examples:
• I like the bigger roller coaster.
• He has a more expensive car than I do.
• HOWEVER: THE is often used with comparative forms (bigger) rather than superlative forms (biggest)
when comparing only two things. This is commonly used in phrases such as "the bigger of the two".
Examples:
• Jessie and Shauna are both smart. But I think Shauna is the smarter of the two.
• Between Jason's son and his daughter, his daughter is the better athlete.
USE 15
• Do not use articles when generalizing about uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns.
Examples:
• Curiosity is a great trait. Uncountable
• Water is an important resource. Uncountable
• Vegetables are good for you. Plural countable

USE 16
• English speakers often use THE plus a singular noun when they talk about or make generalizations
about certain topics, including:
• musical instruments (the piano, the guitar, the flute)
• plants (the coconut palm, the saguaro, the baobab)
• animals (the leopard, the elephant, the lowland gorilla)
• inventions (the steam engine, the plane, the light bulb)
• currencies (the dollar, the euro, the yen)
• body parts (the head, the eye, the ear)
Examples:
• I play the piano.
• The sequoia tree is native to California.
• The dolphin is a very intelligent animal.
• The Wright brothers invented the airplane.
• Right now, the euro is stronger than the dollar.
• Cheryl got poked in the eye.
• In general, English speakers choose to use THE in this way to give the noun a more abstract or
conceptual sound. We choose to say "the piano" to make it sound more like an abstract art form.
Similarly, "the dolphin" sounds more like we are referring to the species. Moreover, "the plane" has
a more conceptual sound that conveys the idea of invention. But remember, you can also make
generalizations about these topics using plurals as in USE 15.

USE 17
• The expressions "a few" and "a little" mean
"some" and express the idea that you have more
than expected.
• Examples:
• He always carries a few dollars for emergencies.
• He had a little difficulty with his homework.
• She has a few friends who can help her move.
• HOWEVER: The expressions "few" and "little"
(without an article) mean "not much" and express
the idea that you have less than expected.
Examples:
• Unfortunately, I had little time to enjoy New York
because I had to work so much.
• Sadly, he has few people in his life.
• They have little money, so their daughter cannot
pay her tuition.
• BUT REMEMBER: When the words "only" or "just"
are used, "a few" and "a little" also emphasize the
meaning "not much".
• Examples:
• Unfortunately, I only had a little time to enjoy
New York because I had to work so much.
• Sadly, he just has a few people in his life.
• They only have a little money, so their daughter
cannot pay her tuition.

USE 18
• Generally, articles are not used with the names of illnesses or diseases.
• Examples:
• Dr. Smith visits schools and universities to educate students on AIDS.
• Oncologists are doctors who specialize in treating cancer.
• There are several medications that can be used to treat malaria.
• HOWEVER: There are some illnesses which require THE.
• the measles
• the flu
• the mumps
• the bubonic plague
• MOREOVER: There are a few health conditions or illnesses which can be used with both A(AN) as well
as THE and follow general article use. This category includes most aches, pains, growths, and attacks.
• a cold
• a heart attack
• a stroke
• a wart / tumor / growth / etc.
• a sore throat / sore back/ sore foot / etc.
• a headache / toothache / backache / etc.
• REMEMBER: This last category follows general article use. Study the examples below.
Examples:
• John has a cold. The cold was pretty bad.
• Nancy had a heart attack. The heart attack seriously weakened her heart.
• Deb had a sore throat. The sore throat made it hard to talk.

• USE 19
• If a direction (north, west, southeast, left,
right) directly follows a verb, do not use an
article with the direction.
• Examples:
• We need to walk south.
• They drove north all day.
• At the stop sign, turn left and walk three
blocks.
• HOWEVER: If a direction follows a
preposition, you must use THE.
• Examples:
• We need to walk to the south.
• Our house is in the north.
• The grocery store is on the right.
• MOREOVER: Use THE with compass
directions when referring to them as special
geographic or cultural regions.
• Examples:
• We love the South.
• Have you ever visited the East?
• The West has better national parks.
USE 20
• THE can be used with plural family names to
refer to the family as a group.
Examples:
• The Robinsons love to vacation in Florida.
• The Shinoharas are originally from Japan.
• My brother lives next door to the Jacksons.

• USE 21
• THE can be combined with certain adjectives to refer to a group of people
such as "the blind", "the elderly", "the rich", "the French", "the Sioux", etc.
• Examples:
• He is elderly. Adjective
• The organization helps the elderly. Elderly people
• REMEMBER: This is especially important in situations where nationalities or
ethnic groups and their languages might be confused. In such situations,
THE is used to specify that we are talking about the nationality or ethnic
group rather than the language.
• Examples:
• I like French. Language
• I like the French. The French people
• HOWEVER: When generalizing about nationalities or ethnic groups that end
in "-ans", such as "Americans", "Mexicans", and "Hawaiians", THE is not
usually used.
• Examples:
• Americans watch a lot of TV.
• Germans drink a lot of beer.

USE 22
• Do not use THE with the names of most
countries unless the name contains a word such
as "States", "Kingdom", "Republic", "Emirates",
"Union", "Coast", etc.
• Examples:
• I love Italy.
• John used to live in Japan.
• He lives in the United States.
• SIMILARLY: Don't use THE with states, provinces,
and cities unless THE is specifically part of the
name or contains a word such as "Territory" or
"Coast".
Examples:
• He lives in California.
• Ladakh is in India.
• The Northwest Territories is a province in
Canada.
• EXCEPTIONS: THE is used with "the
Netherlands" as well as with many nations
which are island chains, such as "the
Philippines", "the Maldives", "the Bahamas",
etc. Additionally, in the past, THE was used with
certain countries such as "the Sudan", "the
Gambia", and "the Congo"; this usage is
becoming less common.
• Examples:
• He lives in the Netherlands.
• I visited the Bahamas last year.

USE 23
Use THE with the names of:
• oceans
• seas
• coasts
• rivers
• swamps
• archipelagos
• collections of lakes (such as the Great Lakes)
• mountain chains
• deserts
• references on the globe (such as the Equator, the North Pole)
• geographic regions (such as the Northwest, the Middle East)
• bridges (except Tower Bridge)
• pagodas
• hotels
• theaters
• museums
• institutes
• skyscrapers
• the Sun, the Moon
• extraordinary works of art or architecture (such as the Mona Lisa, the Colosseum, the Great Wall of China, and the Taj Mahal)
Examples:
• James visited the Hermitage, a famous museum in St. Petersburg.
• I would love to visit the North Pole.
• Nina walked over the Rialto Bridge.
• Use our Articles Flashcards to memorize the categories in Uses 23 and 24.

USE 25
• Time expressions can be especially confusing. THE is
used in some time expressions such as:
• in the morning
• in the afternoon
• in the evening
• during the night
• during the day
• the day before yesterday
• the day after tomorrow
• the fall
• the summer
Examples:
• We'll meet in the afternoon.
• Jake loves to go camping in the fall.
• There was a small earthquake during the night.
• HOWEVER: In other time expressions, no article is
used:
• at night
• at noon
• at midnight
• all day
• all night
• all month
• every month
• every year
• last night
• last Friday
• yesterday
• tomorrow
Examples:
• Did you sleep well last night?
• I'll see you tomorrow.
• We are meeting for lunch at noon.
• MOREOVER: There are some expressions
which can take both A(AN) and THE such
as:
• a/the whole day
• a/the whole month
• an/the entire year
• an/the entire decade
• Examples:
• He spent a whole month in Hawaii. I wish I
could do that.
• I took last Friday off to go to the doctor. I
spent the whole day sitting in his office.
• When she first moved to Germany, it took
an entire year for her to learn enough
German to go shopping.
• Phil hated the '90s. He spent the whole
decade in a dead-end job struggling to pay
his rent.

PREPOSITION
A preposition can also be a two-word or three-word combination. It is called a
compound preposition. Two-word compound prepositions include according to,
because of, different from, due to, and instead of. Some examples of three-word
compound prepositions are as far as, in addition to, in front of, and in spite of. There
are many more two-word and three-word compound prepositions.
• Same preposition can be used for different expressions.
• He had a catnap at lunchtime. (Preposition used to indicate time.)
• We will wait for you at the entrance to the stadium. (Indicates place)
• A stranger pointed at me. (Indicates direction)
• I shall meet you at 2 o’clock on Sunday under the railway bridge.
• Same feeling can use different prepositions.
• They got really angry with him for arriving late.
• He was angry at their lack of efficiency.
• We are very angry about plans to build a heliport nearby.
•
Prepositions are mostly little words that are used before a Noun or Pronoun to show
its relation to some other word in the sentence. In other words, prepositions link a
noun or pronoun to another noun or pronoun in a sentence. Prepositions are used to
show when something happens, (prepositions of time), where something happens
(prepositions of place) or where something is going (prepositions of direction).
Examples:
• I shall meet you at 2 o’clock tomorrow. (indicates time: at 2 o’clock)
• The kettle is on the table. (indicates a place or position: on the table)
• We walked towards the cinema. (indicates direction: towards the cinema)
•
There are many prepositions, some of which are as follow:
about, after, along, among, before, behind, beside, between, by, for, from, in, into, like,
near, of, off, over, to, since, through, under, with, within, without

DEFINITION
1. a preferring or being preferred;
2. greater liking the right, power, or opportunity
of prior choice or claim
3. something preferred; one's first choice
4. a. a giving of priority or advantage to
one person, country, etc. over others, as in
payment of debts or granting of credit
b. such priority or advantage

PREFER
from English Grammar Today
• Expressing preference
• We use prefer to say we like one thing or
activity more than another. We can use a
prepositional phrase with to when we
compare two things or actions:
• I prefer tea to coffee.
• We prefer going by ferry to flying.
• We don’t use than after prefer:
• She prefers books to magazines.
• Not: She prefers books than magazines.
• We can use a to-infinitive or an -ing form
after prefer. A to-infinitive is more common.
• She’s not keen on coffee. She prefers to
drink tea. (or She prefers drinking tea to
coffee.)

WOULD PREFER
Would prefer
• We use would prefer or ’d prefer, followed by a to-infinitive or a noun, to talk about present and future
preferences:
• I’d prefer to go by myself.
• Would you prefer a quieter restaurant?
• She’d prefer not to drive at night.
• When we want to say that we would like to do one thing more than another, we can introduce the second
thing with rather than, followed by an infinitive without to:
• I’d prefer to go skiing this year rather than go on a beach holiday.
• When we are talking about our preferences for the actions of another person, we can use would prefer +
object pronoun + to-infinitive or would prefer it if + past simple:
• They’d prefer us to come later. (or They’d prefer it if we came later.)
• Would you prefer me to drive? (or Would you prefer it if I drove?)
See also:
• Verb patterns: verb + infinitive or verb + -ing?
• Hate, like, love and prefer
• Would like

Typical errors
Typical errors
• We use a to-infinitive after prefer, not
an infinitive without to:
• I prefer to drive.
• Not: I prefer drive.
• Whenever I have time I like to read but
I prefer not to read in the evening.
• Not: … but I prefer not read in the
evening.
• We make comparisons using to or
rather than, not just than:
• A lot of young people prefer computer
games to football. (or A lot of young
people prefer computer games rather
than football.)
• Not: A lot of young people prefer
computer games than football.

Degrees of Comparison are used
when we compare one person or one
thing with another.
There are three Degrees of
Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
Let us see all of them one by one.
1.Positive degree.
When we speak about only one
person or thing, We use the Positive
degree.
• Examples:
• This house is big.
In this sentence only one
noun “The house" is talked
about.
• He is a tall student.
• This flower is beautiful.
• He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned
above talks about only one
noun.

Comparative Degree
• Comparative degree.
When we compare two persons or two things with each other,
We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.
Examples:
a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)
This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)
The term “bigger" is comparative version of the term “big".
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative)
This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive)
The term “more beautiful" is comparative version of the term
“beautiful".

c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative)
He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive)
The term “more intelligent" is comparative version of the term “intelligent".
d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative)
He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive)
The term “taller" is comparative version of the term “tall".

When we compare more than two persons or things with
one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative
degrees.
Examples:
• a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative)
This house is bigger than any other house in this street.
(Comparative)
No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive)
The term “biggest" is the superlative version of the term
“big".
All the three sentences mean the same meaning.
• b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden.
(Superlative)
This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this
garden. (Comparative)
No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one.
(Comparative)
The term “most beautiful" is the superlative version of the
term “beautiful".
All the three sentences mean the same meaning.
• c. He is the most intelligent in this class.
(Superlative)
He is more intelligent than other boys in the
class. (Comparative)
No other boy is as intelligent as this boy.
(Positive)
• The term “most intelligent" is superlative version
of the term “intelligent".
• d. He is the tallest student in this class.
(Superlative)
He is taller than other students in this class.
(Comparative)
No other student is as tall as this student.
(Positive)
• The term “tallest" is superlative version of the
term “tall".

DEFINITION
• When someone is asked the question about
what is time and why does it spring ahead and
fall back, it is normally met with a blank
expression or even all out avoidance. What is
time is that it is a method of measurement
that is used for durations and intervals
between events and to measure motions.

How to Tell Time in English
• There are a number of ways to tell time in
English. For example, 8:15 can be expressed
as:
• eight fifteen
• a quarter past eight
• fifteen past eight

DEFINITION
• The definition of a greeting is a word or
movement to welcome someone.
• 1. the act or words of a person who greets.
• 2. a friendly message from someone who is
absent: a greeting from a friend in another
country.
• 3. greetings, an expression of friendly or
respectful regard: Send my greetings to your
family.

USAGE
• You can use “hai” and you
say too “hai too” or “hello”
• You can use “how are you”
with respon “I’m fine, very
well, etc.”

EXAMPLE
Typical greetings are:
• Hi, Hello, or yo
• How are you?
• What's up?
• How's it going?
Each of these has a set of common responses, which tend
to be neutral: Fine
• Not much.
• Pretty good.
• okay

DEFINITION
• Punctuation is "the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain
typographical devices as aids to the understanding and the correct
reading, both silently and aloud, of handwritten and printed texts.“
Another description is: "The practice, action, or system of inserting
points or other small marks into texts, in order to aid interpretation;
division of text into sentences, clauses, etc., by means of such
marks.“
• The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the
simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to
cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break
up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and
complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.

The Period
Mark the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation
• Examples
• Rome is the capital of Italy.
• I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.
• The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.
Indicate an abbreviation
• Many abbreviations require a period. Dr, Mr, Mrs, and Ms do not take a period in British English, nor do
most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA, Phd, or CIA. In American English, some
of these do require periods or both usages are correct (with and without periods). If you require 100%
accuracy in your punctuation, refer to a detailed style guide for the abbreviation usage rules in the variety
of English you are using.
• Examples
• I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
• We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.
Ellipsis
• Often you will see a sentence concluding with three dots. This indicates that only part of the sentence or
text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the thought.
• Examples
• The Lord's Prayer begins, "Our Father which art in Heaven...'"
• He is always late, but you know how I feel about that...

Period after a single word
• Sometimes a single word can form the sentence.
In this case you place a fullstop after the word
as you would in any other sentence. This is often
the case when the subject is understood as in a
greeting or a command.
• Examples
• "Goodbye."
• "Stop."
Periods in numbers
• Numbers use periods in English to separate the
whole number from the decimal. A period used
in a number is also called a "decimal point" and
it is read "point" unless it refers to money.
• Examples
• $10.43 = ten dollars and 43 cents
• 14.17 = fourteen point one seven

The Comma
• Separate phrases, words, or clauses in lists
• When making a list, commas are the most
common way to separate one list item from
the next. The final two items in the list are
usually separated by "and" or "or", which
should be preceeded by a comma. Amongst
editors this final comma in a list is known as
the "Oxford Comma".

A series of independent clauses (sentences)
• Examples
• I met Harry, we went for a swim together, and afterwards Harry went home.
• I like your son, I might even love him, but he is not a very good soccer player.
a series of nouns
• Examples
• For dinner I had soup, fish, chicken, dessert, and coffee.
• This afternoon I went to Oxford Circus, Picadilly, Hamstead, and Gatwick Airport.
a series of adjectives
• A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective
you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).
• Examples
• She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
• The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.
• She was wearing a bright red shirt.
a series of verbs
• Examples
• Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
• The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.
a series of phrases
• Examples
• The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against
a tree.
• The dog leapt into the air, snatched the frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.

Enclosing details
• Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and comments. The
comma is placed on either side of the insertion.
• Examples
• China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
• Jason's grandmother, who was born in 1930, lived through the Second World War.
• Cats, unlike dogs, do not respect their masters.
• My friend, Jim, likes to go scuba diving.
Participial phrases
• Examples
• Hearing that her father was in hospital, Jane left work immediately.
• Walking to the bus stop that morning, Sam knew it was going to be a special day.
Tag questions
• Examples
• She lives in Paris, doesn't she?
• We haven't met, have we?
Interjections
• Examples
• Yes, I will stay a little longer, thank you.
• No, he isn't like other boys.
• Wait, I didn't mean to scare you.
A final warning
• Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead to a sentence with a completely different meaning, look at these
two sentences:
I detest liars like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = I detest you because you are a liar.
I detest liars, like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = You and I both detest liars.

The Exclamation Mark
The Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark is used to express exasperation, astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise
a comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are used
sparingly if at all.
• Examples
• Help! Help!
• That's unbelievable!
• Get out!
• Look out!
You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic.
• Examples
• What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)
• That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid)
In very informal writing styles (SMS, chat, Twitter or Facebook, etc.), an exclamation mark is
sometimes combined with a question mark to indicate both surprise and slight uncertainty. Double and
triple exclamation marks are common in very informal writing styles, but are a sign of being uneducated in
less casual correspondance.
• Examples of casual writing
• He's getting married!?
• That's insane!!!

The Question Mark
The Question Mark
Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions.
• Examples
• What is your name?
• Do you speak Italian?
• You're spanish, aren't you?
Do not use a question mark for reported questions
• Examples
• He asked me what my name was.
• She asked if I was Spanish.
• Ask them where they are going.
Long questions still need question marks
• Examples
• Isn't it true that global warming is responsible for more and more problems which are having a disastrous effect on the
world's climate and leading to many millions of people in countries that can least afford it having to contend with more
and more hardship?
• Why is it that even though you are unkind to me, ignore me when I ask you for help, and consistently forget to thank
me when I do favors for you, you still claim to want me to be your friend and appear surprised when I prefer to hang
out with other people?
Question marks can sometimes appear within sentences.
• Examples
• There is cause for concern (isn't there?) that the current world economic balance is so fragile that it may lead to a
global economic downturn.
• "Why is she here?" asked Henry.

The Colon
The Colon
The colon expands on the sentence that precedes it, often introducing a list
that demonstrates or elaborates whatever was previously stated.
• Examples
• There are many reasons for poor written communication: lack of planning, poor
grammar, misuse of punctuation marks, and insufficient vocabulary.
• He collected a strange assortment of items: bird's eggs, stamps, bottle tops, string,
and buttons.
• Peter had an eclectic taste in music: latin, jazz, country and western, pop, blues,
and classical.
• He had just one fault: an enormous ego.
The colon is also used to divide the hour from the minutes in writing a time
in English.
• Examples
• 4:15 = "four fifteen"
• 6:45 = "six fourty-five"

The Semicolon
The Semicolon
The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and a
comma. Semicolons can be used in English to join phrases and
sentences that are thematically linked without having to use a
conjunction (example 1 below). Semicolons can also be used
instead of commas to separate the items in a list when the items
themselves already contain commas (example 2 below).
• Examples
• I like your brother; he's a good friend.
• Many great leaders, Churchill, leader of Britain during the Second
World War; Alexander, the great Emperor and general; and
Napolean, the brilliant French general, had strong characters, which
were useful when their countries were at war but which did not
serve them well in times of peace.

Quotation Marks
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. When rephrasing what someone told you, no
quotation marks are needed.
• Examples
• "I'm going to the store now," she said.
• Harry told me, "Don't forget your soccer jersey."
• Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey.
If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the two separate
quotations off from each other.
• Example
• 'I haven't spoken to Peter for months,' Dianne said.'The last time I spoke to him he said, "I'm going to Bahrain and
won't be back for about three years", I've heard nothing since then'.
You may see single or double quotation marks used to mark out idiomatic or unfamiliar expressions
• Examples
• I've always thought that he was very annoying, a bit of a 'pain in the neck.'
• I'm not sure what you mean by "custodial care", but I'm sure you will explain it to me.
Quotation marks both single and double are also used for specific purposes in bibliographic references or when
citing sources in academic writing. There are a number of ways of organising bibliographies which set out standard
formats. Most organisations and academic institutions will prefer one of these or have their own format published in a
'style guide'.
• Example
• "The Migration Flight of the Lesser Tweazle", by Jeremey Adams, The Bird Spotter Magazine, July 2009.

The Apostrophe
The Apostrophe
• The apostrophe probably causes more grief than all of the
other punctuation marks put together! The problem nearly
always seems to stem from not understanding that the
apostrophe has two very different (and very important)
uses in English: possession and contractions.
The apostrophe in contractions
• The most common use of apostrophes in English is for
contractions, where a noun or pronoun and a verb
combine. Remember that the apostrophe is often replacing
a letter that has been dropped. It is placed where the
missing letter would be in that case.

Type Without contractions Contractions
Using "not"
is not, has not, had not, did
not, would not, can not
isn't, hasn't, hadn't, didn't,
wouldn't, can't
Using "is"
she is, there is, he is, it is,
Mary is, Jim is, Germany is,
who is
she's, there's, he's, it's,
Mary's, Jim's, Germany's,
who's
Using "am" I am I'm
Using "will"
I will, you will, she will, we
will, they will
I'll, you'll, she'll, we'll,
they'll
Using "would"
I would, you would, he
would, we would, they
would
I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd,
they'd
Using "have"
I have, you have, we have,
they have
I've, you've, we've, they've
Using "are" you are, they are, we are you're, they're, we're

People, even native English speakers, often mistake its and it's, you're
and your, who's and whose, and they're, their and there. See below for the
difference.
• Examples
• It's a nice day outside. (contraction)
• The cat is dirty. Its fur is matted. (possession)
• You're not supposed to be here. (contraction)
• This is your book. (possession)
• Who's at the door? (contraction)
• Whose shoes are these? (possession)
• They're not here yet. (contraction)
• Their car is red. (possession)
• His car is over there. (location)
• The possessive apostrophe
n most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession
• Examples
• a ship's captain
• a doctor's patient
• a car's engine
• Ibrahim's coat
• Mirianna's book

Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule:
• Examples
• the children's room
• the men's work
• the women's club
Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and plural, show
possession simply by adding an apostrophe after the s.
• Examples
• the bus' wheel
• the babies' crying
• the ladies' tennis club
• the teachers' journal
Proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries) that end in s can form the
possessive either by adding the apostrophe + s or simply adding the apostrophe.
Today both forms are considered correct (Jones's or Jones'), and many large
organisations now drop the apostrophe completely (e.g. Barclays Bank, Missing
Persons Bureau) when publishing their name.
• Examples
• The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home)
• Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop)
• Charles' book (or Charles's book)

Hyphens and Dashes
Hyphens and Dashes
• A hyphen joins two or more words together while a dash
separates words into parenthetical statements. The two are
sometimes confused because they look so similar, but their
usage is different. Hyphens are not separated by spaces,
while a dash has a space on either side.
Hyphens
• Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of
words together while avoiding confusion or ambiguity.
Consult your dictionary if you are not sure if a hyphen is
required in a compound word, but remember that current
usage may have shifted since your dictionary was
published.

Hyphens
Hyphens
Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding
confusion or ambiguity. Consult your dictionary if you are not sure if a hyphen is required in a
compound word, but remember that current usage may have shifted since your dictionary was
published.
• Examples
• run-down
• up-to-date
There are some cases where hyphens preserve written clarity such as where there are letter
collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been hyphenated in
the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email, nowadays).
• Examples
• co-operate
• bell-like
• anti-nuclear
• post-colonial
• great-grandmother
• son-in-law

In some cases though, a hyphen does change the meaning of a sentence.
• Example
• I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (= to put a new cover on it)
• I would like to recover my sofa. (= from someone who has borrowed or stolen it)
• Hyphens in numbers
Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.
• Examples
• fifty-one
• eighty-nine
• thirty-two
• sixty-five
In written fractions place a hyphen between the numerator and denominator except if there is already a hyphen in
either the numerator or the denominator.
• Examples
• two-fifths
• one-third
• three-tenths
• nine-hundredths
• sixty-nine eighty-ninths
Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound
• Examples
• France has a 35-hour working week.
• He won the 100-metre sprint.
• Charles Dickens was a great nineteenth-century novelist.

Brackets and Parentheses
Brackets and Parentheses
The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit
confusing. Generally, 'parentheses' refers to round brackets ( ) and
'brackets' to square brackets [ ]. However, we are more and more used to
hearing these referred to simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.
Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in
technical manuals. Round brackets - ( ) - are used in a similar way to
commas when we want to add further explanation, an afterthought, or
comment that is to do with our main line of thought but distinct from it.
Many grammarians feel that the parentheses can, in fact, be replaced by
commas in nearly all cases.
• Examples
• The government's education report (April 2005) shows that the level of
literacy is rising in nearly all areas.
• I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the
Himalayas for a trekking expedition.
• You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to
observe simple rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the
main rules to be aware of.)

DASHES
Dashes
Dashes can be used to add parenthetical
statements or comments in much the same way
as you would use brackets. In formal writing you
should use the bracket rather than the dash as a
dash is considered less formal. Dashes can be
used to create emphasis in a sentence.
• Examples
• You may think she is a liar - she isn't.
• She might come to the party - you never know.

I vs. ʊə 40 pairs
• The /ʊə/ diphthong ranks eighteenth in frequency among
the English vowels, which partly accounts for the shortness
of this list.
• 39 of the 40 pairs are monosyllables. Spellings of /i/ include
<ee>, <ea>, the letter names B, D, P and T, the musical note
names mi and ti, Spellings of /ʊə/ are <oor>, <ure>, and
<our>, together with the exceptional <ewe> and <ue> in
crewel/cruel.
• There might be some dispute over the <lure> spelling, as to
whether there is palatalisation and whether that would
render these pairs non-minimal. Note the partial
homograph tours, plural of tour, and Tours, the French city
with an anglicised vowel sound.

EXAMPLE
alee allure
B boor
B's boors
be boor
bean bourne
Beans bournes
bee boor
bees boors
been bourne
creel crewel
creels crewels
creel cruel
D dour
lea lure
leas lures
lead lured
lee lure
lees lures
me moor
mead moored
meed moored
mi moor
P poor
pea poor
pee poor
she sure
T tour
T's tours
T Tours
tea tour
tea Tours
teas tours
tease tours
tee tour
teed toured
tees tours
tee Tours
ti tour
ti Tours ye
you're

Vowels 1 and 4, i vs æ
• The /i/ vowel exhibits in this list its common spellings of <ee>, <ea>
and <eCe>, along with unusual spellings in chic, Keith, kilo, keyless,
Rheims and Sikh. The /æ/ vowel is usually <a> in a monosyllable or
before two consonants, but this set also contains the spellings
<aCe> in bade and <ai> in plaid.
• These two vowels are sufficiently far apart in the mouth to be a
problem for nobody.
• Two of the potential rude word confusions are evident here,
namely creep/crap and sheet/shat.
• Interesting pairs include: breezier brassière
diesels dazzles
greenery granary
keyless callous
seaman salmon
seedling saddling

EXAMPLE
• beach batch
• beaches batches
• bead bad
• bead bade
• beak back
• beaks backs
• beaker backer
• beakers backers
• bean ban
• beans bans
• beans banns
• beast bast
• beat bat
• beating batting
• beats bats
• beaten batten
• beater batter
• beaters batters
• Bede bad
• Bede bade
• beech batch
• beeches batches
• been ban
• beet bat
• beets bats
• beetle battle
• beetled battled
• beetles battles
• beetling battling
• Bede bade
• beech batch
• beeches batches
• been ban
• beet bat
• beets bats
• beetle battle
• beetled battled
• beetles battles
• beetling battling

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