Learning Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Behaviorism Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors. Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured. Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response. How Classical Conditioning Works Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior. Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement. How Operant Conditioning Works Observational Learning Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational

1. Educational Psychology
EDU-202
Spring -2022
Dr. Fouad Yehya
fyehya@aust.edu.lb
1

2. Social Context and Socio-
emotional Development

3. Big goals
In this session, you will:
• Explain some aspects of children’s socioemotional
development: self-esteem and identity.
• Discuss what intelligence is,
• Discuss how it is measured
• Discuss theories of multiple intelligences,

4. Socioemotional Development
• we have discussed three important social
contexts that influence students’
socioemotional development: families, peers,
and schools.
• In this section, we focus more on the
individual students themselves as we explore
the development of the self, morality,…

5. self-esteem
Children’s socioemotional development
• Self-esteem referred to as self-worth or self-
image, is the individual’s overall conception of
himself or herself.
• Self-esteem often varies across domains and
becomes more differentiated in adolescence.

6. • Periods of low self-esteem come and got for
many students.
• But for some students, persistent low self-
esteem translates serious problems.
• Persistent low self-esteem is linked with low
achievement, depression, eating disorders, and
delinquency (Kaplan, 2009).
self-esteem

7. • When low self-esteem is compounded by
difficult school transitions or family problems,
the student’s problems can intensify.
self-esteem

8. what strategies can be used to
promote self-esteem in your
classrooms?

9. • Four keys to increasing students’ self-esteem
are:
(1) identify the causes of low self-esteem and the
domains of competence important to the student,
(2) provide emotional support and social
approval,
(3) help students achieve
(4) develop students’ coping skills.
Self-esteem

10. Identity Development
• To analyze Erikson’s concept of identity, it is
important to distinguish between exploration
and commitment.
• Exploration involves examining meaningful
alternative identities.
• Commitment means showing a personal
investment in an identity and staying with
whatever that identity implies.

11. Identity Statuses
• Researchers proposed four identity statuses:
- identity diffusion: the identity status in which
individuals have neither explored meaningful
alternatives nor made a commitment.
- identity foreclosure: The identity status in which
individuals have made a commitment but have
not explored meaningful alternatives

12. Identity Statuses
- identity moratorium (freeze): The identity status
in which individuals are in the midst of exploring
alternatives but have not yet made a commitment.
- identity achievement occurs when individuals
have undergone a crisis and have made a
commitment

13. Intelligence
• Intelligence is one of our most prized possessions.
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

14. • Some experts describe intelligence as the
ability to solve problems.
• Others describe it as the capacity to adapt and
learn from experience.
• Still others argue that intelligence includes
characteristics such as creativity and
interpersonal skills.
Intelligence

15. • Intelligence the ability to solve problems and
to adapt and learn from experiences
• Intelligence based on a Vygotsky’s theory Lev,
included the ability to use the tools of the
culture with help from more-skilled
individuals.
• Because intelligence is such an abstract, broad
concept, there are different ways to define it.
Intelligence

16. • Can intelligence be directly measured as
height, weight, and age?
Intelligence

17. • We can evaluate intelligence only indirectly by
studying and comparing the intelligent acts
that people perform.
• The differences in how these cognitive
processes are described, and how we will
discuss intelligence, lie in the concepts of
individual differences and assessment.
Intelligence

18. Individual differences
• Individual differences are the stable, consistent
ways in which people are different from one
another.
• Individual differences in intelligence generally
have been measured by intelligence tests
designed to tell us whether a person can reason
better than others who have taken the test.

19. Individual Intelligence Tests
• Intelligence tests have been classified into
three groups. Individual, group and
performance tests.
• The individual intelligence test is
administered to only one individual at a time.
These tests cover age group from 2 years to 18
years.

20. • Binet developed the concept of mental age
(MA), an individual’s level of mental
development relative to others.
• Stern created the concept of intelligence
quotient (IQ), which refers to a person’s
mental age divided by chronological age (CA),
multiplied by 100. That is, MA/CA × 100
• The Stanford- Binet tests are the revised
version made at Stanford University.
Individual Intelligence Tests

21. • The current version of the Stanford-Binet is an
analysis of five aspects of cognitive ability
and two aspects of intelligence.
- The five aspects of cognitive ability are: 1-
abstract thinking, 2- knowledge, 3- math skills,
4- visual-spatial 5- reasoning and working
memory.
- The two aspects of intelligence are verbal
intelligence and nonverbal intelligence (Block
Design)
Individual Intelligence Tests

22. • The Wechsler scales provides an IQ score and
scores on a number of subtests and also yield
several composite indexes (the Verbal
Comprehension Index, the Working Memory
Index, and the Processing Speed Index).
• The subtest and composite scores allow the
examiner to quickly determine the areas in
which the child is strong or weak
Individual Intelligence Tests

23. Individual Intelligence Tests
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children
(Verbal
Comprehension,
Vocabulary)
“I’m going to show you
some pictures. First I’ll
tell you a word, and then
I want you to point to the
picture of that word.
Let’s begin! Now, point
to the weather vane.”

24. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
• Working Memory, Digit Span:
“I’m going to say some numbers. When I am
finished, I want you to repeat them exactly as I
said them.” 9 – 4 – 2 – 7 – 8 – 0 – 3
NB: Recite the numbers very clearly with
exactly one number per second:
Individual Intelligence Tests

25. Individual Intelligence Tests
Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children
(Fluid – Reasoning or
abstract thinking )

26. Individual Intelligence Tests
Do you see the
figures inside these
boxes? They form a
pattern. Choose the
figure in the answer
row below that
continues the
pattern.”
Wechsler
Intelligence Scale
for Children
(Fluid – Reasoning
or abstract thinking)

27. • Intelligence tests such as the Stanford-Binet
and Wechsler are given on an individual basis.
A psychologist approaches an individual
assessment of intelligence as a structured
interaction between the examiner and the
student.
Individual Intelligence Tests

28. Group Intelligence Tests
• Group intelligence tests are more convenient
and economical than individual tests, but they
do have their drawbacks.
• When a test is given to a large group, the
examiner cannot establish rapport, determine
the student’s level of anxiety, and so on.
• In a large-group testing situation, students
might not understand the instructions or might
be distracted by other students.

29. • There are two kinds of group intelligence tests
verbal and non-verbal.
• Verbal: The verbal group test requires an
individuals to read out certain problems and write
out solutions of these problems.
• Non-Verbal: The non-verbal group tests presents
similar problems as the verbal test but in a
different way. The problems are presented in the
form of pictures, diagrams, puzzles and mazes.
Group Intelligence Tests

30. Performance Test
• Performance tests are designed to test problem
solving ability using certain objects such as
pictures and blocks, instead of words.
• Performance tests are specially useful with
young children, persons with speech defects
and persons who do not have proficiency in
language.