2. What is Anatomy?
Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure
Physiology: study of body’s function
Structure reflects Function!!!
Branches of Anatomy
Gross: Large structures
Surface: Landmarks
Histology: Cells and Tissues
Developmental: Structures change through life
Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
3. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Each of these build upon one another
to make up the next level:
Chemical level
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
4. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Chemical level
Atoms combine to make molecules
4 macromolecules in the body
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
5. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Cellular
Made up of cells and cellular organelles
(molecules)
Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic
Organelles are structures within cells that
perform dedicated functions (“small organs”)
http://cmweb.pvschools.net/~bbecke/newell/Cells.html
6. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Tissue
Collection of cells that work together to
perform a specialized function
4 basic types of tissue in the human body:
Epithelium
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
www.emc.maricopa.edu
8. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ system (11)
Made up of a group of related organs that
work together
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular Circulatory
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
Pg 341 Urinary System
9. Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organism
An individual human, animal, plant, etc……
Made up all of the organ systems
Work together to sustain life
10. Anatomical Directions
Anatomical position
Regions
Axial vs. Appendicular
Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
Medial vs. Lateral
Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
Superficial vs. Deep
Proximal vs. Distal
Anatomical Planes
Frontal = Coronal
Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
Sagittal Pg 5
11. Reference Point
Anterior – (ventral) Posterior – (dorsal) Frontal Plane
Closer to the front surface of Closer to the rear surface
the body of the body
Medial – Lateral – Sagittal Plane
Lying closer to the midline Lying further away from the
midline
Superior – (cranial) Inferior – (caudal) Horizontal Plane
Closer to the head in relation to Away from the head or
the entire body towards the lower part of
(More General) the body
Superficial – Deep – Surface of body or
Towards the surface Away from the surface organ
Proximal – Distal – Origin of a structure
Closer to the origin of a body Further away from the
part origin of a body part
(More Specific)
12. 4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
13. Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that
have a similar structure and perform a related function
Four types of tissue
Epithelial = covering/lining
Connective = support
Muscle = movement
Nervous = control
Most organs contain all 4 types
Tissue has non-living extracellular
material between its cells
14. EPITHELIAL TISSUE: sheets of
cells cover a surface or line a cavity
Functions
Protection
Secretion
Absorption
Ion Transport
15. Characteristics of Epithelium
Cellularity
Composed of cells
Specialized contacts
Joined by cell junctions
Polarity
Apical vs. Basal surfaces differ
Supported by connective tissue
Avascular
Innervated
Highly regenerative
16. Classification of Epithelium-based
on number of layers and cell shape
Layers
Simple
Stratified
Stratified layers characterized by shape of apical layer
Psuedostratified
Shapes
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
17. Types of Epithelium
Simple squamous (1 layer)
Lungs, blood vessels, ventral body cavity
Simple cuboidal
Kidney tubules, glands
Simple columnar
Stomach, intestines
Pseudostratified columnar
Respiratory passages (ciliated version)
Stratified squamous (>1 layer)
Epidermis, mouth, esophagus, vagina
Named so according to apical cell shape
Regenerate from below
Deep layers cuboidal and columnar
Transitional (not shown)
Thins when stretches
Hollow urinary organs
All histology pictures property of BIOL 1010 Lab
18. Special Epithelium
Endothelium
Simple squamous epithelium that lines vessels
e.g. lymphatic & blood vessel
Mesothelium
Simple squamous epithelium that forms the lining
of body cavities
e.g. pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
19. Features of Apical Surface of
Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane
of apical epithelial cell
Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes
Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
20. Features of Lateral Surface of
Epithelium
Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
Cell Junctions (3 common)
Desmosomes
Proteins hold cells together to maintain integrity of tissue
Tight Junctions
Plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
Gap junction
Proteins allow small molecules to pass through
21. Features of the Basal Surface
of Epithelium
Basement membrane
Sheet between the epithelial and connective tissue
layers
Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
Made up of:
Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet made of
proteins
Superficial layer
Acts as a selective filter
Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
Reticular fiber layer
Deeper layer
Support
22. Glands
Epithelial cells that make and secrete a
product
Products are water-based and usually contain
proteins
Classified as:
Unicellular vs. multicellular
Exocrine vs. Endocrine
Page 138
23. Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Exocrine Glands
Secrete substance onto body surface or into
body cavity
Activity is local
Have ducts
Unicellular or Multicellular
(ex) goblet cells, salivary, mammary,
pancreas, liver
24. Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Endocrine Glands
Secrete product into blood stream
Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells
Hormones travel to target organ to increase
response (excitatory)
No ducts
(ex) pancreas, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid
25. 4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
26. 4 Types of Connective Tissue
1) Connective Tissue Proper
2) Cartilage
3) Bone Tissue
4) Blood
27. Connective Tissue (CT):
most abundant and diverse tissue
Four Classes
Functions include connecting, storing &
carrying nutrients, protection, fight
infection
CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix
Contains a variety of cells and fibers
Some types vascularized
All CT originates from mesenchyme
Embryonic connective tissue
28. Fibers in Connective Tissue
Fibers For Support
Reticular:
form networks for structure & support
(ex) cover capillaries
Collagen:
strongest, most numerous, provide tensile strength
(ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
Elastic:
long + thin, stretch and retain shape
(ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
29. Components of Connective Tissue
Fibroblasts:
cells that produce all fibers in CT
produce + secrete protein subunits to make them
produce ground matrix
Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid
derived from blood in CT proper
medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to cells
found in ground matrix
Ground Matrix (substance):
part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs
interstitial fluid
Made and secreted by fibroblasts
jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules
30. 1) Connective Tissue Proper
Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT
Functions
Support and bind to other tissue
Hold body fluids
Defends against infection
Stores nutrients as fat
Each function performed by different kind
of fibers and cells in specific tissue
31. Defense from Infection
Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first
defense
Cells travel to CT in blood
Macrophages-eat foreign particles
Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction
Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
inflammation response
White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes,
eosinophils-fight infection
Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
32. Loose CT Proper
Areolar CT
All types of fibers present
All typical cell types present
Surrounds blood vessels and nerves
33. Specialized Loose CT Proper
Adipose tissue
Loaded with adipocytes, highly vascularized, high
metabolic activity
Insulates, produces energy, supports
Found in hypodermis under skin
Reticular CT
Contains only reticular fibers
Forms caverns to hold free cells, forms internal
“skeleton” of some organs
Found in bone marrow, holds blood cells, lymph
nodes, spleen
34. Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue
Contains more collagen
Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
Regular vs. Irregular
Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull
(eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions
(eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones
Dense regular Dense irregular
36. 2) Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage
Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
Reside in lacunae
More abundant in embryo than adult
Firm, Flexible
Resists compression
(eg) trachea, meniscus
Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/ low oxygen)
NOT Innervated
Perichondrium
dense, irregular connective tissue around cartilage
growth/repair of cartilage
resists expansion during compression of cartilage
37. Cartilage in the Body
Three types:
Hyaline
most abundant
fibers in matrix
support via flexibility/resilience
(eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
Elastic
many elastic fibers in matrix too
great flexibility
(eg) external ear, epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
resists both compression and
tension
(eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus
38. Components of Cartilage Summarized
Cells Matrix
Chondrocytes Gel-like ground
substance
Chondroblasts Lots of water
(in growing cartilage)
Fibroblasts Some have collagen and
elastic fibers
39. 3) Bone Tissue: (a bone is an organ)
Well-vascularized
Function:
support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
(inorganic component)
movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
40. Bone Tissue
Osteoblasts
Secrete organic part of bone matrix
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
Sit in lacunae
Maintain bone matrix
Osteoclasts
Degrade and reabsorb bone
Periosteum
External layer of CT that surrounds bone
Outer: Dense irregular CT
Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
Endosteum
Internal layer of CT that lines cavities and covers trabeculae
Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../skeletal.htm
41. Compact Bone
External layer
Osteon (Haversian system)
Parallel to the long axis of the bone
Groups of concentric tubules (lamella)
Lamella = layer of bone matrix where all fibers run in the same
direction
Adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions
Haversian Canal runs through center of osteon
Contains blood vessels and nerves
Connected to each other by perforating (Volkman) canals
Interstitial lamellae fills spaces and forms periphery
www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../CartilageandBone03.htm
42. Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone
Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer
Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form
honeycomb
each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes
no canal for vessels
space filled with bone marrow
not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center
43. Shapes of Bones
Flat = skull, sternum, clavicle
Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae
Short = carpals, patella
Long = femur, phalanges,
metacarpals, humerus
44. Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis
Medullary Cavity
Nutrient Artery & Vein
2 Epiphyses
Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal Artery & Vein
Periosteum
Does not cover epiphyses
Endosteum
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines medullary cavity of long bones
training.seer.cancer.gov/.../illu_long_bone.jpg
45. 2 Types of Bone Formation
Intramembranous Ossification
Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle
Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that mineralizes
Endochondral Ossification: All other bones
Begins with a cartilaginous model
Cartilage calcifies
Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts
Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years
46. Bone Growth & Remodeling
GROWTH
Appositional Growth = widening of bone
Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum
Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts
Lengthening of Bone
Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate)
Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side
REMODELING
Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue needs
to be replaced
Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca2++ , PO4 to
body fluids from bone
Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid
Ideally osteoclasts & osteoblasts work at the same rate!
47. Components of Bone Tissue Summarized
Cells Matrix
Osteblasts Gel-like ground substance
calcified with inorganic
salts
Fibroblasts Collagen fibers
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
48. 4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue
Function:
Transports waste, gases, nutrients,
hormones through cardiovascular system
Helps regulate body temperature
Protects body by fighting infection
Derived from mesenchyme
Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
Occurs in red bone marrow
In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
49. Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types
fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
*Platelets = Thrombocytes:
fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting
58. Nervous Tissue: control
Support cells (= Neuroglial): nourishment,
insulation, protection
Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within ganglia
Schwann cells-surround axons (PNS)
Microglia-phagocytes
Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths around axons
Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord, ciliated, help
circulate CSF
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
59. Integumentary System
Functions
Protection
Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
Cushions & insulates deeper organs
Prevention of water loss
Thermoregulation
Excretion
Salts, urea, water
Sensory reception
60. Microanatomy - Layers of the
Skin
Epidermis
Epithelium
Dermis
Connective tissue
Hypodermis / subcutis
Loose connective tissue
Anchors skin to bone or muscle
Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
Hair follicles
Sweat and Sebaceous glands
Nails
www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg
61. Cell Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum corneum
Dead keratinocytes
Stratum lucidum
Only in “thick” skin
Dead keratinocytes
Stratum granulosum
Water proofing
Stratum spinosum
Resists tears and tension
Stratum basale
Sensory receptors
Melanocytes
Keratinocytes (in all layers) 15minbeauty.blogspot.com
