This is a course description I wrote for Religion in the Ancient Mediterranean World, a course offered by The Great Courses. This course uses ancient texts and archaeological evidence to explore the religious cultures of the ancient Mediterranean world, from the earliest indications of human religious practices during prehistoric times to the conversion of the Roman Empire.

1. Long Copy
Religion and religious thought is generally believed to be one of the hallmarks of
humanity. While guiding us on the best course for living our best life, religion developed
over a vast timeline and all across the planet. From Egyptian pharaohs to Israeli prophets
and Greek philosophers, we go deep in exploration as we meet the diverse leaders who
helped shape societal values in civilization’s formative years!
Welcome to Religion in the Ancient Mediterranean, a 48-lecture course taught by
Professor Glenn S. Holland. Here we hone in on the extraordinary vitality of religions in
the ancient Mediterranean world. Beginning with its earliest human inhabitants and
coming into full flower with the first civilizations to develop written communication in
Egypt and Mesopotamia, this course is a tour de force on the human desire for
transcendence. We will look at obviously common threads across all cultures as well as
religious and magical practices that were unique to each.
What is Religious Thought?
This course delivers a concise definition of something that is almost ineffable: the sacred.
Human life and the experience of reality are so mysterious as to be overwhelming. With
only the rules of nature in place, in order for civilization to flourish, there must be
human-derived rules. We were on our own until we began asking the Gods for help!
We must remember that these cultures were so vastly different from our modern society,
yet they had the same basic problems. How they solved theirs was through a system that
has not changed drastically but involves a hierarchical sect of mediums between man and
the forces of nature aka the gods. Much of religious thought is in fact a fulcrum between
man and nature, some type of helping hand which could either tip the scales of a great
harvest or a sour hunt.
And so we find that ultimately religion is about yearning for some manner of
reconciliation with the divine as well as a desire for help from a higher power.
Spreading the Word of God
Divination is the act of interpreting divine will and figuring out how to please the gods.
As you’ll discover, either elite officials or ordinary people received the word of god,
almost like a lottery.
Prophets would be the tune changers, the movers and shakers who received the word of
God personally and passed it to the people, usually during times of intense crisis. In other
words, people were saving people by communing with the divine. They were being
assisted.
We'll explore the stories of many of these prophets, including Neferty, Isaiah, and Elijah,
in-depth. You will learn:
• Ways in which they received and transmitted their divine messages

2. • How they challenged and transformed dominant religious ideology
• Their role in warning the people of major disasters
Another form of divination, which you're probably familiar with, is astrology. You'll
learn of Alexander the Great's role in popularizing astrology and how it was used to
potentially circumvent fate. We'll also explore the fascinating distinctions between
religion and magic as well as the difference between a magician and a miracle worker.
Where Did Religion Begin?
We only know what we can dig up! Archaeology comes to the rescue here. From digs
across the Mediterranean, we’ve uncovered signs that even the earliest humans fetishized
and worshipped certain gods for various practical reasons.
Beginning in the Old Stone Age, we discover what appears to be an awe for the dead as
Neanderthals of the Middle Paleolithic era frequently buried their dead with artifacts of
daily life and stone slabs covering them. At this time, there was also the first instance of
what would become a common practice: the surprising removal of the brain, which
scholars have worked out to suggest cannibalism!
Learn how in the Upper Paleolithic era, all of a sudden, exaggerated female figurines
appear, suggesting fertility rites. Here we find the beginning of humanity attempting to
control and interact with the forces of nature to enhance life’s circumstances: the essence
of religion!
Professor Holland articulates the Middle Stone Age’s obsession with mother-goddess
figures, cave paintings, and even more elaborate burials. With powerful yearning,
humanity appears to be making contact with the gods and goddesses behind the forces of
nature!
How Does Geography Play a Role in the Development of Religion?
For each of the areas we examine, we'll touch upon how its physical location influences
the evolution of religious beliefs and practices across the era.
• Ancient Egypt developed in cultural isolation and remained largely unchanged
throughout Egypt's history. This affected its dominant religion, which was
polytheism. You'll learn how Egyptian religion embodied a maze of
contradictions, with their Gods resembling humans in many ways while also
presiding over the mysterious, mighty forces of nature.
• Mesopotamia, unlike Egypt, was a cultural crossroads and thus prey to many
outside influences. This was due to its proximity to the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. Discover this region's rich mythic and literary history which includes
worship of fertility goddesses and the Epic of Gilgamesh.
• Israel began as a collective of nomadic herdsman, eventually settling into a life of
farming. This shift influenced their religious beliefs and practices, while major
crisis such as the fall of Judah profoundly affected the nature of Israeli devotion.

3. • Greece was a collection of city-states that each had distinct religious practices but
shared a pantheon of Gods which they celebrated with elaborate festivals, dances,
and sacrifices. Their rituals combined the secular and the sacred.
• Romans inhabited a hilly landscape with both Etruscans and Greeks influencing
religious beliefs and practices. They believed that spirits inhabited every aspect of
life and worshipped a wide array of gods. Rome saw the rise of magic/astrology,
"savior" worship, and philosophical rationalism.
Fact, Fiction, or Myth? Sorting Through the Elements of Religious Stories
When it comes to religious tales, where do you draw the line between fact and myth? In
particular, the story of Jesus of Nazareth has aroused much controversy. We'll investigate
Jesus's narrative and the challenges of presenting a historical account of his life in detail.
Regardless of its factual accuracy, though, one thing remains certain: the undeniable
impact that Jesus's story has had on generations of Christians.
That is why this course places such a huge emphasis on stories and how they shape our
identity. Stories told by different cultures provide a powerful entry point into the religious
values and practices that held these communities together.
You'll discover:
• How creation myths serve both to instruct and to entertain
• The role of stories in intellectual life, from Egyptian wisdom literature to the
teachings of Plato and Aristotle
• The symbiotic relationship between stories and the cultures that spawned them
You'll also learn how ancient literary works such as plays and poems indirectly revealed
religious values. Each narrative is only a snapshot, but they can give us a sense of what it
was like to be a participant in a religious community as well as how people felt about the
gods. For instance, Homer's Iliad contains gods arguing, humans carrying out
relationships with the gods, and gods interfering in human affairs. Bacchae by Euripides
reveals a great deal of the playwright's feelings about the relationship between humans
and Dionysus.
What's the Purpose of Religion?
Sometimes, as demonstrated through the stories passed down from generation to
generation, people were merely looking for ways to make sense out of the otherwise
unexplainable aspects of life. In other cases, religious activities such as prayers or spells
comforted them during challenging situations and gave them hope for the future. But as
seen with the secret rites of the Hellenistic Age, some people felt that these rituals gave
them a powerful edge over their fellow citizens.
Here are a few of the myriad reasons that people took to religion:
• Connect to and maintain harmony with the divine
• Explain the mysteries of life

4. • Provide a blueprint for living the "right life"
• Navigate through dark, chaotic times such as the fall of Israel, culminating in the
"savior" figure birthed after Rome's Civil War
• Gain protection from the whims of fate and assurance of a grand afterlife
As the dominant religions shifted from polytheism to monotheism, though, the question
arose: how can evil and suffering still exist in the presence of a righteous, all-powerful
God? Learn how religious leaders tackled this challenging question.
We'll also investigate the four major philosophical criticisms of religion. Examining these
criticisms actually deepens the process of religious inquiry in that it forces us to ponder
mysteries that religion has still not completely accounted for.
Ultimately, grappling with profound questions will enrich your mind and deepen your
understanding of the world. Professor Holland's Religion in the Ancient Mediterranean
promises to be an invigorating plunge into the essential inquiries of what it means to be a
human living in an infinite universe!
Lecture Blurbs
1.Talking About Ancient Religious Cultures
Where do we get our information about ancient religions? Sources include remains from
ancient burial sites and records of rituals, but most importantly, stories. Learn how stories
offer crucial insights about religious values that held these communities together. We'll
also explore how religion revealed itself through myth and metaphor.
2. What is religion?
Here we come up with a working definition of religion. It's not as easy as you think!
Then we delve into the what and why of how a community becomes a religious one. Who
are the players and what do they do that define their religious concerns?
3.Early Prehistoric Religion
Now that we have a working definition of what religious expression looks like, we take a
look at visual relics from prehistory to make a guess as to how early humans thought and
who or what they valued enough to worship including fertility goddesses.
4.Prehistoric Religion—The Neolithic Era
The New Stone Age was a major pivot in human evolution. This change is traced to a
transition toward patriarchal societies with more advanced burial and religious practices.
Discover how religious artifacts reveal much about agriculture, settlements, and the
development of culture.
5.Egypt - A Unique Religious Culture

5. Egypt’s religious culture was largely based upon societal control. Learn how the pharaoh
gave people a glimpse of godliness and the need to understand the Nile’s flooding led to a
pantheon of gods who shared many human traits including the ability to age and die!
6.Egyptian Creation Stories and Their Meaning
Here we learn a new term, cosmogonie, which means a creation story. We discover the
various cosmogonies of the Egyptian gods, their common root, and the four fundamental
methods by which all things are created.
7. The Egyptian Pantheon
This lesson focuses on the huge variety of gods in the Egyptian Pantheon and their many
roles from representing cosmic objects to instructing various professions and even
funerary practices. The Egyptian gods were deeply entrenched in all aspects of daily life.
8.Egyptian Myths of Kingship
For Egyptians, the pharaoh was a divine figure who made reality possible by enforcing
cosmic balance. We learn of the epic two-part myth involving Osiris, Isis, Horus, and
Seth and why the pharaoh embodied Horus during his reign and Osiris after death.
9.Egyptian Myths of the Underworld
The extremely expensive, grandiose, and extraordinary funerary practices of the
Egyptians are singular to recorded history. Their vivid, elaborate afterlife beliefs are
revealed in this lesson and incredibly, still stand with us today in the form of mummies
and the pyramids.
10. Egypt - The Power of Goddesses
Although Egypt was patriarchal, the many goddesses played very important roles. Learn
how Hathor, the goddess of eroticism, nearly destroys all of humanity! You'll also
discover the significance of Isis as both sister and wife to Osiris and how she tricks Re,
giving her the ability to cast spells!
11.Egypt- Religion in Everyday Life
Fortune telling, spell casting, elixirs: daily life in Egypt demanded rituals and magical
practices. Learn how the temple was a place to care for the cult statue of the god, while
religious festivals and processions allowed commoners to commune with and “see” their
god in the form of the statue.
12. Egypt - The Beginning of Wisdom
Proverbial wisdom exists in all of human history. Learn how the Egyptian scribal schools
taught techniques on how life is best lived. Discover the various methods of passing this
wisdom on and the fascinating stories themselves unique to Egypt.

6. 13. Mesopotamia the Land Between the Rivers
Mesopotamian city-states began human civilization. Influenced by proximity to the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, they were fraught with chaos, political skullduggery, and war.
Discover how writing began, including written law which backed the egos of savage and
ultra-powerful kings, making this the most interesting time on Earth.
14. Mesopotamia - Stories of Creation
Here we find the pantheon of gods to be rich and elaborate. They were divine figures
with political authority to which the people had to pander. Largely involved in weather
and Earthly elements, the gods made war constantly among themselves and the stories
here are epic.
15.Mesopotamia - Inanna the Goddess
Nearly all early cultures had fertility goddesses. Here we discover Inanna with her sacred
marriage/sex act that must be completed to secure the kingdom. We also watch as, like
Isis, she controls fury and natural disasters. Her trip to the underworld is an adventure
like no other.
16. Mesopotamia - Gilgamesh the King
Gilgamesh is the oldest surviving epic poem. Learn the tropes involved in epic poems
and compare with others such as Homer’s Odyssey. We discover King Gilgamesh in
direct communion with the gods who help him by creating Enkidu, a wild character
“civilized” by a prostitute who befriends Gilgamesh.
17. Mesopotamia - The Search for Eternal Life
As the epic of Gilgamesh continues, he is almost seduced by Ishtar, who has a history of
destroying her lovers. Sex, murder, and godly behavior ensue. Enkidu’s death frightens
Gilgamesh. He goes on a spectacular quest for eternal life only to be humbled by a
survivor of the flood.
18. Mesopotamia - The Great Flood
Here we discuss the very common theme of a disastrous flood found in many of the
earliest known books: Ut-napishtim in the epic of Gilgamesh, Noah in the Bible, and
Atrahasis, a Mesopotamian hero. Learn the variations in the stories and why the gods
would destroy what they created.
19. Ancient Concepts of the Divine
Discover both the subtle and the obvious differences between the religious thought of
Western culture and the Eastern cultures we’ve been studying. We investigate
monotheism, polytheism, and the relatively unheard-of henotheism, especially as they
relate to the poem Enuma Elish.

7. 20. The Gods of Syria-Palestine
Much like the Nile River or the Tigris and Euphrates, geography affected this land bridge
between Egypt and Palestine. Tormented by constant migration and military invasion,
their pantheon was strong. Discover “El” the chief god’s might in creation of all and
other gods who were key players in Mesopotamian culture.
21. Israel's Ancestral History
Here we discover clay tablets that describe the lives of the Israeli nomadic herdsman.
Stories describe the Lord, their god YAHWEH, initiating contact with Abraham. Learn of
the supreme bonding covenants between the Lord and the people through the Exodus
from Egypt including plagues, promises, and divine revelations!
22. Israel’s National History
After settled in Canaan, an arid land, and leaving their wilderness god behind, Israelites
found new gods. Meet charismatic “city princes” and “judges” who would lead the
people. Learn of the battle between The Lord’s henotheistic rule and Israeli farmers and
herdsmen who now needed fertility rituals and polytheistic practices.
23. Prophecy in Ancient Near East
The extraordinary communion between a prophet and a divine will are explored in depth:
how the prophet receives the message, what the message contains, and how the prophet
delivers the message. Learn of the ways they gained spiritual insight into how to best
live.
24. Early Prophecy in Israel
As prophecy became the dominant form of spiritual communication, many types
developed. Learn the nuances of “guild prophecy,” “official prophecy,” and “independent
prophecy.” Elijah from the Bible was a prime example of independent prophecy, leading
Israel toward monotheism again.
25. Classical Israelite Prophecy
After the reign of Solomon, the city of Judah split from Israel. Both kingdoms flourished
without a military power threatening. The religious practices in both kingdoms fascinates,
blending foreign god worship with worship of the Lord. Learn how prophets like Isaiah
and Amos challenged thought with prophecy instead of war.
26. Israel’s Great Crisis
Here we learn of the fall of Judah and the lesson that faithfulness to a covenant with the
Lord is key to success as a kingdom. Discover the prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and
Second Isaiah who guided their people through chaotic times by the power of their
prophecy.

8. 27. Syria-Palestine -- The Problem of Evil
Reconciling evil with a benevolent god is the prime issue in religion. In this lesson, learn
how even after the fall of Judah, new communities were not prosperous. Who is to
blame? Discover the creation of “Apocalypticism”: belief that evil forces control yet the
Lord will return as savior.
28. Early Aegean Civilizations
During the Bronze Age, many civilizations arose around the Aegean Sea. We investigate
Minoa with its seemingly peaceful, unfortified palaces, and indications of goddess
worship. Mycenaean cities, by contrast, were composed of fortified palaces. Learn of
elaborate tombs and how these early Greeks discover a god who would become Zeus!
29. Religious Culture in the Iliad and the Odyssey
Now in the Dark Age, writing disappears and oral culture arose with poets such as Homer
telling epic poems of adventure including the Iliad and the Odyssey. These poems were
told fresh every telling. Discover the incredible details of these epics and the religious
culture they perpetuated.
30. Religious Culture in Archaic Greece
Greece emerges from the Dark Age into The Archaic Age. Discover how city-states ruled
by councils of soldiers became the dominant form of civilization. They practiced animal
sacrifice using music and dance to worship the divine in everything. Discover religious
mythology in the tremendous works The Homeric Hymns and Theogony!
31. Greece-- How Things Came to Be
Hesiod’s Theogony is the Greek story of creation and, typically, resembles those of Egypt
and Mesopotamia. Learn how this beautiful poem births the pantheon of Greek divinity
such as Gaea, Kronos, and the almighty Zeus. With the story of the flood we find out why
the gods hated humans so!
32. Greece--The Goddess
This lecture introduces Athena, goddess of wisdom, Demeter, who controls the crops, and
Aphrodite, who governs erotic love. We learn the amazing story of Persephone and
Hades, which is remarkable in that encoded within it is an explanation of the seasons.
33. The Classical Era in Greece
The Classical era happens between the Persian Wars and Alexander the Great’s death.
The magnificence of the Athenian city-state was glorified as a pure democracy with
involvement of all citizens primarily to honor the gods who preserved its continuing
glory. Discover humanism and the height of the Greek arts!
34. Greece-- Philosophy as Religion

9. The epic teachings of Pythagoras are on display here as we learn that the soul was a
divine spark trapped in a mortal body, to be released through purification over many
lifetimes. We also find Socrates and Plato concocting systems that created the
controversial Stoics and Cynics!
35.Religious Culture in the Hellenistic World
The Hellenistic Age is accurately identified with a new superstition. A type of magical
thinking was creeping into culture. After the Peloponnesian War, Alexander the Great’s
thoughts were manifesting. This lecture explains the true elements of syncretism that led
to Greek philosophical thought in spite of religion.
36.Mystery Religions in the Hellenistic World
Here we delve into the mystery religions, named so because of “secret rites” that were to
take place before a neophyte was allowed to experience any divine teachings. These
expensive, time-consuming rituals were conducted in hidden places. Experience the
thrilling cataclysm between hellenistic and mystery religions!
37. Mystery Religions From the East
Here we discover the deep deep iconography of Isis. While the majority of mystery
religions focused on a female goddess, we focus on Apuleius’s novel The Golden Ass,
where we find a Syrian goddess as well as the mysteries of Isis.
38. Roman Religious Cultures Before the Empire
Here we learn of deep devotion by the Romans to their spiritual aids. They believed all
life was infused with spirituality, and they honored it in religious practices during
everyday life. The Romans were highly meticulous in every detail of their rituals and
how they conducted worship.
39. Rome -- Saviors and Divine Men
After civil war in Rome, Augustus Caesar tried to bring about a new religious revival. He
became successful and was worshipped in his own time. Civilization brought so many
problems that everyone was looking for any solution! Here we discover how the “savior”
character originated, stemming from mystery religions.
40. Rome -- Divination, Astrology, and Magic
Divination was an intrinsic part of Roman life, including using magic, spell casting, and
cursing. Here we discover Babylonian astrology brought to the world by Alexander the
Great and enjoy Apuleius’ story The Golden Ass for humorous insight into the distinction
between religion and magic and how they intermingled.
41. Rome -- Critics and Charlatans

10. Philosophy provided both a rival to and a means for keeping religion in check. Here we
look at the four major categories of philosophical criticism of religion. Additionally, we
look at how Samosata, a 2nd century satirist, absolutely destroyed a religious charlatan
with a literary parody examining his life!
42. Jesus of Nazareth as a Figure in History
Here we separate the facts from the myths about Jesus’s life to reveal his unique religious
thinking. We discover a radical new conception of Israel’s covenantal faithfulness to the
Lord, which supports the hypothesis that Jesus believed he was called to reform Judaism
of the time.
43. Creating Jesus Communities
Discover how the Jesus movement began as a sectarian community within Judaism.
Spreading with Greek-speaking Jews, it eventually spread to Gentiles, who protested
circumcision. We look at the fascinating life of Paul, at first an enemy and eventually the
movement’s greatest missionary.
44. Living and Dying for the God(s)
In Greek religious and philosophical tradition, death was highly desired as a means of
returning to communion with the Lord. Here we reveal how martyrdom became both a
means of protesting Caesar and a propagation of a Christian obstinacy that helped the
religion cement itself in a sincere and compelling reputation.
45. Women’s Religious Roles in the Early Empire
Discover compelling archaeological evidence that suggests women were very active,
serving in synagogues and acting as missionaries. Did women actively indulge in magic?
While they may have held equal status with men early on, we find that social
expectations in the empire eventually led to suppression.
46.The Jesus Movement in the Greco-Roman World
Here we watch the fall of the Jesus movement along with Jerusalem. Discover the
brilliant Gnostic movement which introduces an esoteric conception of the transmission
of knowledge. Fascinatingly, the rejection of Jewish authority in scripture revealed
Christianity's roots in Judaism.
47. The Death and Rebirth of the Old Gods
We look at Celsus and Plotinus’ written antagonism of Christianity, which sheds light on
its growing power. Discover the horror of the “Barracks Emperors” who terrorized and
found power via assassination. Strangely, we find polytheism resurfacing in the form of
saints.
48. Conclusion-- Persisting Ideas and Yearnings

11. We’ve looked at how the ancient Mediterraneans initiated the religious and magical
practices of humanity. But what is the ultimate desire? Perhaps a reconciliation of the
divine world with the mundane? Here we consider the pure reasoning behind religious
yearnings.