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1. Nervous system

2. The function of the nervous system
1. The nervous system binds and integrates all
parts of the organism into a single, unified
whole. It controls and regulates all activities of
the body, whether voluntary or involuntary.
2. The nervous system ensures the reactions
and individual adaptation of the organism to
the external environment.
3. The organism’s behaviour is the higher nervous
activity: consciousness, intelligence, memory,
emotion.

3. Cell types of the nervous system
The nervous tissue is composed
of two types of cell:
• the excitable cells - neurons;
• the non-excitable cells - neuroglia
and ependima.

9. The Function of the Glial and Ependymal Cells
• Provide mechanical support to neurons.
• Astrocytes take place in the nutrition of nervous cells.
• Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath, which
facilitates the spreading the nervous impulse.
• Act as isolators between the neurons and prevent
neuronal impulses from spreading in unwanted
directions.
• Remove the foreign material and cell debris by
phagocytosis.
• Repair the damaged areas of the nervous tissue. By
proliferation they form glial scar tissue, and fill the gaps
left by degenerated neurons.
• Ependimal cells are concerned with exchanges of
materials between brain and the cerebrospinal fluid.

12. • The activity of the nervous system is based
on the reflex (I.M. Sechenov).
• A reflex is a regular reaction of the
organism to a change in its external and
internal environment, effected through the
central nervous system
• The reflex arc is the foundation of the
reflex. It consists of the chain of the
neurons

14. • Receptors transform the energy of the
external stimulus into a nerve process; the
receptors are connected with afferent
(centripetal or receptor) neurons.

15. Classification of receptors according the
specific energy
– mechanoreceptors respond to deformation
(touch, pressure, sound waves, etc.),
– chemoreceptors are stimulated mostly by
chemical substances entering the
internal cavities,
– photoreceptors are stimulated by light
– thermoreceptors are stimulated bytemperature
– osmoreceptors reacting to osmotic pressure
changes,
– nociceptors respond to damaging stimuli,
associated with irritation or pain.

16. Classification of receptors
1. Exteroceptors respond to external stimuli
a) The general or cutaneous sensory receptors are located
in skin
b) The special sensory organs are
- the olfactory receptors (smell),
- the visual receptors (vision),
- the acustic receptors (hearing),
- the gustatory receptors (taste).
2. Proprioceptors responsible for filling and detecting the position
of our body and movement of the body.
They are located in the skeletal muscles, joints and bones.
3. Interoceptors respond to internal stimuli, are concerned with
regulation of blood flow and pressure and respiration.
They are located in the walls of the viscera, glands and vessels.

17. CLASIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. The somatic or animal nervous system (soma, i.e. the body itself)
is responsible for the function of the animal’s life
(movement, respond to the stimuli)
It controls:
- the striated musculature of the skeleton and
certain internal organs (tongue, larynx, pharynx),
- skin,
- sensory organs.
2. The vegetative, visceral, or autonomous nervous
is responsible for the function of the vegetative life
(metabolism, fluid circulation, respiration, reproduction)
It controls:
- the internal organs,
- the endocrine system,
- glands
- the smooth muscles of the skin,
- heart,
- vessels.
The vegetative part of the nervous system is divided into
- sympathetic nervous system is activated during the stress,
- parasympathetic nervous system is activated during the rest.

18. CLASIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. The central nervous system
– the spinal cord (medulla spinalis, Gr. myelos),
which occupies upper 2/3 of the vertebral canal,
and contains many reflex centers;
– the brain (cerebrum, Gr. encephalon), which
occupies cranial cavity, and contains the higher
governing centers.
2. The peripheral nervous system
– 12 pairs of cranial nerves,
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves,
– the roots of the nerves,
– the nervous ganglia,
– the nerve plexuses,
– the peripheral nerve endings.

25. VESICLES OF THE BRAIN
Three vesicles Five vesicles Cavity of the vesicles
I. Forebrain,
Prosencepfalon
1. Endbrain,
Telencephalon
consists of two
cerebral hemispheres,
hemispheriae cerebri
Lateral ventricles
Ventriculus lateralis
- the first ventricle is located in the
left cerebral hemisphere;
- the second ventricle is located in
the right cerebral hemisphere.
2. Between-brain,
Diencephalon
Third ventricle
Ventriculus tertius
II. Midbrain
Mesencephalon
3. Midbrain
Mesencephalon
Aqueduct of Sylvius
Aqueductus cerebri Sylvii
III. Hindbrain
Rhombencephalon
4. Hindbrain proper,
Metencephalon
a. Pons Varoliib.
b. Cerebellum
Fourth ventricle
Ventriculus quartus
5. Medulla oblongata
Myelencephalon

43. The conducting pathways of two-way
connections with the brain
(projecting pathway)
ASCENDING OR SENSORY
TRACTS
DESENDING OR MOTOR
TRACTS
1. The exteroreceptive tracts 1. Pyramidal tracts or
voluntary efferent
motor tracts.
2. Proprioreceptive tracts 2. Extrapyramidal tracts or
involuntary efferent
motor tracts.
3. The interoreceptive tracts.

44. The exteroreceptive tracts - perceive the stimuli from the
external environment.
- general or cutaneous sensitiveness (pain, temperature,
pressure, touch)
- vision,
- hearing,
- olfaction.
Exteroreceptors are located in
- skin
- sensory organs.

45. Proprioreceptive tracts are divided into:
a) the voluntary tracts or cortical direction are
concerned with detecting movement, mechanical
stresses and position of body in space, as well as
tactile sense.
b) the involuntary tracts or cerebellar direction.
They are essential to the co-ordination of muscles, and
maintenance of equilibrium.
Proprioreceptors are located in
- the muscles, tendons,
- joins capsule, ligaments.

46. DESENDING OR MOTOR TRACTS
1. Pyramidal tracts or voluntary efferent motor tracts.
They responsible for the voluntary movement of the skeletal
muscles.
- Corticospinal tract
- Corticonuclear tract
2. Extrapyramidal tracts or involuntary efferent motor tracts
They transmit impulses providing muscles tone. They responsible for
- the involuntary coordination of movements,
- maintenance of equilibrium
- induce unconscious movement.
1) The rubrospinal tract or Monakow's tract
2) The reticulospinal tract
3) The olivospinal tract
4) The vestibulospinal tract
5) The tectospinal tract

61. Typical appearance of Parkinson’s disease

65. Paralysis of right sixth nerve

78. Proganthsim

80. THE TELENCEPHALON
Endbrain (telencephalon) consists of two
cerebral hemispheres
(hemispheria cerebri).
Each hemisphere is composed of
• the pallium,
• the rhinencephalon,
• the basal ganglia.
Lateral ventricles (ventriculi laterales)
are cavities of both hemispheres.

111. Formatio reticularis

134. Hydrocephalic child