Radio journalism and production

RADIO JOURNALISM
AND PRODUCTION
RADIO JOURNALISM SIMPLIFIED
This book is aimed at enabling the learner utilize radio to produce news and
appropriate programmes for the benefit of society.
At the end of this course the learner should be able to:
Gather news from various sources using appropriate methods and techniques.
Process and present information to the audiences
Develop skills, attitudes and values in presenting radio news and other programmes
And for those using this as a guide to attain a diploma in journalism and mass
communication at UMCAT SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM AND MASS
COMMUNICATION, ought to be prepared to attempt a two hours practice exam,
of which one and half hours is planning session, and thirty minutes for presentation
Assessing ability of the candidate to:
Script writing, presentation, moderation, timing, coherence dress code, voice,
clarity in presentation, accuracy, individual confidence among others.
2015
Katamu Eddy Nedinani

INTRODUCTION
I. RADIO STUDIO SET UP
Radio studio is a special room where radio signals are originated. It affords various production
activities including recording, transmission, and other performances of the radio personals.
The studio is therefore specially built with certain features to make it a quiet place, and to prevent
unwanted sound from with inn: heavy door with air tight-lock; well-treated walls with acoustic
treatment; shaped ceiling; double glass window with corridor between them; noiseless air-
conditioner and suitable lightings.
Radio studio is divided up into two parts:
 Studio floor or performance area
 Studio control room which houses technical equipment.
Radio stations have two types or more studios:
 On-Air Studio: this type is normally meant for live programmes like news, discussion,
talks, continuity announcement and other programmes that have a call-in segment.
 Production Studio: this type is for the purpose of producing pre-recorded programmes like
drama, documentary, magazines, commercials, etc. it is also used for a rehearsal and voice
testing.
 Talks studio
The talk’s studio is an acoustically treated room for interviews and discussions. Guests sit
around a circular or hexagonal table facing individual microphones. There will be visual
contact with the main studio through a large glass window.
Catering for every form of audio, old, new and emerging – computers, phone, CD, cart, record
and tape decks, all input through the mixing desk.
 Remote studios
Some radio stations serve large areas where reporters would struggle to cover a story and get back
in time for the deadline. Likewise, because of the distance involved, guests might be unwilling or
unable to travel to the station to record an interview.
Recording everything by phone is quick and cheap, but at the expense of quality. Remote
studios are a better solution. These are usually small rooms rented in well-placed larger buildings
such as city hall. They contain a microphone, mixer and possibly a recording deck. The remote
studio is connected to the radio station by a broadcast-quality telephone line. Guests can go there to
be interviewed and reporters can use them to send back reports.

Some stations may have a broader categorization based on microphone placement and type, size
and activities performed thereof: drama studio; music studio; announcing studio, auditorium
studio; and general purpose studio.
STUDIO EQUIPMENT:
The studio equipment are many but the most common type includes the console
boards, microphones, recording devices, and loud speakers,
 The Console Board: radio programmes are channeled to pass through the console board
which serves as the converging point of all signals sourced in the studio. It is design to
perform the following functions:
 Selection: it can select from different audio sources on which one to go on air.
 Mixing: It mixes and balances two or more sound signals or inputs
 Amplifying: it amplifies to desired level, all the signals coming in its weaker form
 Traducing: it converts sound energy into electrical impulse and moves it to boaster.
 Shaping: it shapes sound to produce echo or thin pitch sound.
 Measuring: measures the intensity of sound to detect over or under modulation.
 Channeling: various sound inputs are attached to produce a needed programme.
 Microphone: has two basic components: the diaphragm, which is a flexible device and
very sensitive to air pressure variation of a sound wave; and the generating element
attached to the diaphragm and it converts the diaphragm’s vibration into electrical energy.
The more you talk the more the diaphragm vibrates.
Types of Microphones
Microphones can be broadly categorized into three:
1) According to their internal construction and under this category we have:
a) Dynamic Microphones: This type of Microphone is capable of producing excellent sound
fidelity; it is rugged in construction which makes it relatively insensitive to harsh handling.

b) Ribbon/Velocity Microphones: This Microphone is similar to a dynamic microphone but tend
to be more fragile. It produces a very warm, rich and mellow sound which is often desirable for
announcers, singers and musical instruments.
c) Condenser Microphones: This type of Microphone offers excellent audio response
characteristics but it requires a power supply to both charge the capacitor and to amplify the
tiny out-put current.
2) According to how they are used
a) Lavalieres: tiny microphones attached to the shirt or blouse during production.
b) Boom Microphones: these are larger ones and desirable for drama production.
c) Hand-Held microphones: handled close to the mouse and mostly unidirectional. It is used by
musicians and outside interviews.
3) According to their pick up patterns:
a) Omni-Directional Microphones: pick sound from all directions, mostly used in round-table
discussion.
b) Bi-Directional Microphones: Pick sound from two angles and are desirable for two- person
interview.
c) Unidirectional Microphones: pick sound from one direction and are used for announcement
and news casting.
 Recording Devices: these are the audio sources used to record and play recorded audio or
sound in the studio:
 Tape recorder: records and plays music and other documented audio with tape.
 Compact disc (CD) Player: functions like tape recorder but using CD plate.
 Reel-to-Real Machine: used for recording and playback music.
 Turn Table: an outcast device used for backup on which the record turns.
 Monitor/ Loud Speaker: broadcast what is on the air. It houses a magnet, coil and
woofer. The magnet creates reaction. The reaction passes through the coil to the woofer
which vibrates and produces sound.

Characteristics of radio
Radio informs: The medium of radio is such that affords both the technical crew and the on-air
performer the opportunity to make information available on first time basis without the
complexities of film processing or visual consideration. All the performer needs to do is to speak
intelligently on the microphone while the audio console operator provides the technical support.
The medium in other words is a medium of immediacy where fast-breaking news is relayed first
to thousands of people in different places in a matter of minutes. Information about an
occurrence can be filed in by listeners via cell phones, sms and fax to presenters who
immediately relay such information without caution by calling for more information from other
witnesses around the event.
Radio educates: Radio can educate us and broaden our knowledge about issues and events.
Even more importantly, radio is now use to compliment the classroom teaching in a more
interesting and exiting way and at learners’ convenience.
Simplicity of radio: The simplicity of radio takes various forms. In the first instance radio
is easy to operate and as such does not require heavy equipment that is needed as compared to
all other media. In another instance it affords those working in the station to be creative and
express themselves freely but taking cognizance of the acceptable on-air norms. Again its
simplicity makes production process less cumbersome as compared to the production process in
television
Radio is inexpensive: Just like radio is simple, it is also financially healthy. Firstly, it is
cheaper it terms of purchasing receivers, secondly, it is financially healthy because it does not
require a full complement of staff that is needed for television. Some radio stations in Uganda
are managed by 10 staff and in some countries it could be less. This means that the station
gets to pay less staff and can use the money for other innovative programmes

Radio does not need electric power supply: The good thing about radio, particularly in
developing countries like Uganda where electric power is erratic, is that people can listen to
radio broadcast just by powering there receiver with batteries.
Radio receiver is portable and mobile: Radio receivers come in different shapes and sizes
which makes it possible for people to carry and move around with it without losing out any
aspect of their favorite programmes.
Radio receiver is portable and mobile: Radio receivers come in different shapes and sizes
which makes it possible for people to carry and move around with it without losing out any
aspect of their favorite programmes.
It is not a literate medium: Unlike the print medium which require ability to read and
write, radio does not require a literate audience. All that is required is a good ear and a
good listen habit.
Radio is an entertainment medium: it is a medium that provides entertainment to the different
category of listeners. Its raw material is sound and as such rely heavily on music from popular
types of music are classical, light classical, light, devotional, folk to reggae.
Radio is a medium of persuasion: when enlightening a large disperse audience is the ultimate
goal, radio may be the best medium to use, because it can be use to raise and motivate people
to action.
 Radio signals can reach almost all corners of the world, with an instant message;
 The message can be understood easily;
 Radio appeals to the ear and other human faculties, particularly the imagination;
 Radio programmes can be very stimulating to human emotions, depending on the
way they are presented; and
 Radio is very profitable for group listening, because of the discussion which
naturally follows.
PERSONNEL IN RADIO STATIONS
Radio Announcers

Announcers in radio perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program
information, such as program schedules and station breaks for commercials or public service
information as they introduce and close the programs. They are commonly referred to as Radio
Presenters or Radio DJ’s. Announcers read prepared scripts or ad-lib live commentary as they
present news, sports, weather, updates and commercials. While “On Air”, DJ’s provide
information about Music and Artists, Weather and the Traffic report. They may take requests from
listeners, interview guests; manage the social platforms like Face book or Twitter in addition to
managing listeners contests.
Radio Animators
Radio animators read prepared advert scripts or ad-lib dialogue in commercials suitable for the
selling of a product or service. These are usually free lance and report to the Production Manager.
They are expected to create interesting and ear catching radio spots and skits for the clients.
Play by play announcers
These provide an on spot account in sports narrative and provide a colorful play by play action of
live sports activities. In some radio enterprises they are referred to as “Commentator‘s”.
Radio Programs Manager/Director (PD)
The Radio programs manager or Head of Programming, is responsible for planning and
coordinating the day-to-day programming of a radio station. He/she manages programming
resources including personnel and locally and nationally generated broadcast materials. He/she
supervises both full-time and part time employees on a regular basis. He/she makes decisions
regarding hiring, evaluation, promotion and termination of employees, or makes related
recommendations that are given particular weight. Further still, the manager monitors broadcast
traffic and makes improvements where necessary to enhance programming format. The PD
evaluates materials prior to broadcast for accuracy, quality and adherence to commission
guidelines in addition to maintaining quality control of broadcast material.
Personnel/Administrative Manager (PAM)
The PAM manages and supervises administrative services and special projects run by the station.
He/she is responsible for a variety of administrative, fiscal and or personnel as well as specialized
functions. The primary difference between this job and other administrative portfolios relate to the
size and complexity of the department and the scope of responsibility. He/she assists in
administrative planning and evaluation of policies, procedures and services plus specialized
operational units within the department. These include the implementation of goals, evaluating
quality of services and executing changes recommended by other departmental heads.
News Editor

The News Editor has overall editorial and management powers of the station’s News and Current
Affairs programs. He/she has to oversee the news making process on a practical level ensuring
good liaison with external news sources and international outlets like the BBC and CNN. The news
editor gives the legality of any news package.
News Reporters
Reporters gather information from various sources, analyze and prepare news stories and
sometimes present the information on air. On the other hand, Correspondents file stories about
events happening in the regions they are stationed. News reporters are under the supervision of the
News editor.
Technical Department
Employees in this department operate and maintain the equipment ranging from studio machines to
transmitters. They are interchangeably referred to as “Engineer,” “Technician,” or “Operator”.
They manage equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity and range of sounds. They
operate equipment to regulate the volume and audio quality of a broadcast. This department is
headed by the Chief Engineer.
Marketing/ Sales Executives
The Marketing executives sell advertising time to business companies, advertising agencies, and
other organizations on behalf of the radio station. They must be highly knowledgeable about the
station’s mission and vision, the reach, target format and other related listener demographics,
including income levels, gender, age and consumption patterns.
Traffic controller
He/she schedules and lines up spot adverts/commercials and promotions to be played by the
announcers. The traffic controller carefully schedules commercials, taking into account both the
timeslot in which a commercial is to be played, as well as spot adverts in relation to competitors in
the given business. For example, two car dealership spot adverts should not be played during the
same commercial break. This portfolio calls for high concentration, confidence and sensitivity.
Music Director
Every radio station must have somebody in charge of Music. In addition to producing music play
lists on a daily basis, he/she coordinates the compiling of new songs, stores old hits for future use,
and helps keep the station in line with the format. For example, Jazz music, R&B, Country music,
Local hits, Oldies, Rock etc. She/he works hand in hand with the PD to produce theme days and
nights.
Production Manager

The Production Manager is in charge of the production studio. He/she assigns
announcers/animators, schedules studio time for recording, produces commercial and station
promos. At times the Production Manager does the achieving of radio programs. In some radio
establishments, this manager doubles as a radio producer. He/she directs and produces recordings
of programs. Remember not all programs on a radio station are broadcast live.
Promotions Director
Coordinates and executes station promotion ideas and activities for both the programming and
marketing departments. He/she creates and manages listener contests and promotions in addition to
fulfilling other value added promotions on behalf of the clients.
Receptionist
Handles all incoming calls, receives guests plus letters in addition to a number of key
administrative activities in the day-to-day operations of clients.
Business Manager
This is the Financial Manager of the radio station. This portfolio calls for the understanding of the
business of the Media and how the media product differs from other consumable products or
services. The FM ensures a smooth flow of the station’s revenue including paying of all bills,
wages and staff salaries. The business manager heads the accounts section.
General Manager
He/she works for the station owners. He oversees the station operations. Must possess general
business knowledge, leadership ability, sales and programming skills and technical understanding
of how the station operates. In majority of radio stations, the General Manager doubles as the
Human Resource officer responsible for maintaining staff operational guidelines, company policies
and reinforcing company procedures.
Carrier opportunities in radio
Radio presenter
Radio Presenters are the voice of a station or programme, whether they work in speech-based or
music radio. They create the tone and style of radio output and establish a relationship with
listeners.
TIPS FOR A GOOD RADIO PRESENTER

When you are a radio presenter, there are guidelines that when perfectly followed will make you a
second to none as far as presentation is concerned and also gain as many listeners as possible.
 The main thing to remember is that you need to be entertaining. On the radio, it is your
personality that people will begin to know you for, so have it clear in your mind what type
of radio personality you want to be and remain consistent at all times.
 Let your natural self shine through the airwaves and this will be the way how people will
remember you. In other words, be natural. Avoid imitating another good presenter.
“Always be yourself’’
 A radio presenter should always have interesting things to say, whether it is exciting news
and facts, or simple anecdotes.
 It helps if you are particularly knowledgeable about the topic that your show is based on.
This means that if your radio programme is about music, then you should be very clued-up
on this subject.
 You should also be interested in what you are talking about. If you can show that you are
passionate about something, then people will love to hear you talk about it and your show
will become more popular.
 Be able to generate original ideas and to think creatively about how to communicate them
to audiences.
 Understand how to use the voice effectively for radio.
 Be able to learn how to use a variety of recording equipment and to operate different radio
studios.
 Be able to present while operating studio controls and coordinating a range of simultaneous
technical activities.
 Have excellent communication skills and be able to draw information from people. Make
them listen for longer and get them to come back for more.
 Be able to work calmly effectively under pressure, react quickly and meet tight deadlines.
 Have knowledge of the law, ethics and industry regulations around radio production.
 Understand the requirements of the relevant health and safety legislation and procedures.

 Have knowledge of the radio market, different station and programme styles and audience
demographics.
 Read thoroughly ant text off air that you will be reading on air and rout out any strange
pronunciations or uncommon words.
 Establish the authority and confidence. (Nothing bothers an audience more than hearing a
presenter who sounds unsure, tense, confused, or diffident)
 Speak clearly and have a generally appealing voice and manner.
 Set the tone of the programme depending on its nature and content. How serious do you
want your programme to sound?
 Know your running order before you start the programme. Have a plan for your show. Pre
read and understand any scripts before you do them.
 Don’t rely on newspapers to fill your show out. They are a tool, but think how you can put
your own spin on a story. Anyone can read a newspaper out.
 Concentrate. Personal problems are left at the door and remove any distractions.
Radio Producer
The producer’s role and basic tips
Radio producers co-ordinate the content of a programme. They control the creative aspects of the
show, and are often closely involved in the business and technical sides too. They may not appear
on the air themselves, but they play a key part in creating what listeners hear.
Producers are found in national, local and digital stations. Most of them work in speech radio,
such as news, features, documentaries and sports programmes. Others work on music shows.
A radio producer's tasks may include:
• generating ideas and researching content
• creating a schedule, booking guests and selecting music
• recording and editing
• managing the budget

Working hours can be long and unpredictable. As many radio programmes are broadcast live, shift
work is common, and may include evenings and weekends. Radio producers work in offices and
recording studios.
A radio producer needs to be:
• a strong communicator - verbally and in writing
• able to generate fresh ideas and make them happen
• able to take the initiative and remain calm under pressure
• good at working in a team
• comfortable working with computers and broadcast equipment
• knowledgeable and passionate about radio
Producers work for radio stations and production companies all over the Uganda. The widest
opportunities are in kampala, where most of the national stations are based.
It is important to get early experience of radio and make contacts in the industry. Many radio
producers start off by volunteering on student radio local fm, or gaining work experience on a local
station. Radio producers develop their skills on the job. They are expected to keep up to date with
advances and new technology in the industry.
News Editor
What does a Radio News Editor do?
Radio News Editors oversee and direct the work of a news team supplying news content for one or
more different outlets, from single local radio stations to international news services.
They have day-to-day control of news output, identifying stories, and selecting and commissioning
material for bulletins or programmes. They set and drive the news agenda in line with the approach
and style of their station or programmes. They have editorial control over news output and ensure
that professional journalistic standards are maintained, and that content complies with the law,
broadcast regulation and organizational policy. They are the first point of contact for legal or
editorial queries.

Radio News Editors must keep abreast of local, regional, national or international issues of
relevance to their station or programme output. They should also have good contacts within the
communities they serve.
It is the Radio News Editor’s role to generate original ideas and approaches to the way stories are
covered. They assign work to their team, briefing and deploying Reporters and Broadcast
Journalists.
To do this role, you will need to:
 understand and have an instinct for what makes a good news story and exercise sound
editorial judgment
 have excellent writing and storytelling skills, with the ability to tailor and adapt content for
different audiences and platforms
 be able to generate original ideas, and to think creatively about how to communicate them
to audiences
 be able to work calmly effectively under pressure, react quickly, and meet tight deadlines
and lead with confidence and decisiveness
 have excellent communication skills, complemented by diplomacy
 be able to manage creative teams, and encourage acceptable creative risk-taking
 be able to coach and develop talent in others
 be able to give and receive constructive feedback, and manage performance
 be able to encourage frank and constructive reviews of news or programme output
 be able to manage programme budgets and resources and maintain objectivity in order to
be fair and balanced in the treatment of stories
 have an interest in news and current affairs and good general knowledge
 be able to learn how to use a variety of recording equipment and to operate different radio
studios
 have knowledge of the law, ethics and industry regulations around radio production, and
broad experience of their application in radio and the practice of journalism
 understand the requirements of the relevant Health and Safety legislation and procedures
 have strong IT skills, including word processing and data handling

 have knowledge of the radio market, different station and programme styles, and audience
demographics

INTRODUCTION
What is News?
When asked to define the concept of news, most beginners simply say news is any information that
is new and reported by journalists. Their perspective of definition is founded on new events and
not past ones. Although this definition may be true, it is however looking at news writing from a
single perspective. Often there are events that have been reported in the past but which someone
stumble on a new twist to the information the public already has. The new twist to the information
quite frankly makes that old even news worthy.
News Treatment
News can sometimes involve good event that leave everyone happy at the end of the day. At other
times news can be bad that it leaves a nation sad for days and months.
Thus, news can be presented in two forms –hard news or soft news.
 Hard news is an account of events that are serious, topical and timely and they have to
be reported immediately. Events such as accidents, disaster, speeches y senior government
officials, labour disputes, political campaigns and statement, major crimes, accidents are
stories that are regarded as hard news.
 Soft news events are stories that though are not serious but contain the elements of news.
Soften news are stories geared towards informing and entertaining the public. Nwabueze
(2009) writes that “soft news may not be as timely as hard news but it is not necessarily
stale news. Soft news may not be breaking news but it could be interesting and exciting,
providing insight into serious matter.”
3.1 A news Bulletin
A news Bulletin is a radio program that carries a collection of news items about a variety of
topics (politics, economics/finance, culture, sports, etc.). These news items can again be
subdivided into categories like world news, regional news and local news business news sports
news among others.
Radio news is current, topical information on events, facts and opinions. It is objective and must
not contain the journalist’s opinion. In most cases, news reports are spoken texts only. Sometimes,

news items also include short sound bites from a reporter, a correspondent or a statement from a
person mentioned in the news item
Types of News Programmes
News programmes are essential part of programming for any radio.
News is very important to everybody because it keeps people informed about current events and
developments happening in their community and other communities.
News satisfies people’s curiosity and concern and it provides basic facts, which enable people to
make up their minds and so join the general discussion that leads to community discussion.
News programmes may take the following formats
News in brief: this is a five minute newscast that presents five to 10 stories in their briefest form. It
does not necessarily include actualities and voice reports.
Integrated News format: this usually is between 10mins to more or different news presented in
different segment in the course of the news. It is usually hard news with each segment may be
handled by different newscaster. The segments include, sports, business and economy,
entertainment etc.
News magazine: though a news magazine is like the integrated news format, it however differs in
that news magazine approach stories form human interest angle. It is a combination of hard and
soft news. It usually starts with straight straights for about 15 to 20mins breaks away to
commercial before the anchor goes on to present the stories of the day. It makes use more of voice
reports.
Headlines news: this format is adopted by both radio and television stations. On radio, the
headline news is present for 60secs with each story been presented in a simple short sentence. This
usually precedes the bulleting or integrated news which is to come later in the station
programming.
3.2 Writing news items
The principle of writing news for radio is very simple:
 Be precise,
 Brief, (“clear Write it how you would say it. Get straight to the point at the beginning”).
 Correct “Get your facts, spelling and grammar right”.

 Neutral
 Objective.
 But nonetheless interesting.
This is what news language is all about.
Make short sentences to ensure that listeners can understand everything quickly.
Do not overload the sentences with information to make sure that the listeners are able to take in
what is carried in the news copy.
Be neutral and objective to make sure that listeners can make up their own minds about the news.
In radio news, the most important information comes first – though not necessarily at the
beginning of the sentence. The first sentence or the first two sentences contain the core of the
information (‘lead sentence’). Everything that follows just adds further detail or background,
which will help listeners understand the issue and put it into perspective.
News language
Radio news gives the listeners a lot of information in a very short time. Therefore, the news has to
be worded in a way that it is easy to understand and to follow.
News language has to be absolutely concise and neutral. And since the aim is to convey a
maximum of information in a minimum amount of time, there is no room for literary style in the
news
Here is a short overview over of the most important rules:
 Repeat key words rather than using synonyms. Synonyms are often difficult for listeners to
understand and sometimes lead to misunderstandings.
 Beware of foreign words. Do not base your manuscript on what you understand. Consider
whether your listeners will understand it. If there is no alternative for a foreign word, you
should use it and then explain it.
 Abbreviations and acronyms need to be explained the first time they appear in a news item.
Do not assume that all listeners know what UNICEF means (United Nations Children’s
Fund) or UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).
 Keep numbers and figures to a minimum. They are hard to understand on the radio. If you
have to use numbers, try to round them off. However, there are cases when it is absolutely
necessary to give the exact figures and numbers down to the decimal points – particularly
when reporting election results, inflation rates or exchange rates.

 Percentage rates often sound very abstract. Wherever possible, try to find different
expressions for them: ‘50 percent’ can also be described as ‘half ’, ‘200 percent’ are ‘twice’
or ‘double’.
 Draw comparisons to visualize information about size and/or distance. If, for example, you
mention that a building site is about the size of two football fields, listeners will visualize
this better than if you say the size in square metres.
 If possible, write your news in the active voice. This will make the news item sound livelier
and more natural. The passive voice often sounds like an official announcement: dry and
boring.
 There are no quotation marks on the radio – unlike in print. So if you quote someone, use a
phrase like ‘end of quote’ to tell the listeners where the quote ends and where your
journalistic text continues. Or better yet: use indirect speech.
The use of sound clips/ Actualities/Sound Byte/Grabs
Sound clips make news or a report livelier, more interesting and more authentic. But not all sound
clips are good and make sense. Before you use a sound clip, you should consider whether it will
truly provide listeners with new insights.
3.4 Editing
Few raw interviews appear on air without some form of editing – live interviews are the obvious
exception. But where an interview has been pre-recorded, and time permits, the reporter will
usually want to tighten it up and trim it to the required length.
Just as important is editing out irrelevant questions and statements to throw into focus comments
that are newsworthy. You may also want to alter the sequence of questions and answers to point up
a strong angle that emerged during the interview.
Finally, recordings are usually fine edited to give them polish by removing hesitation, repetition
and intrusive background noise, such as a passing lorry or a ringing phone.
Editing has four main functions:
 To reduce length
 Removes unwanted material
 Alters the sequence of the record material
 Permit creative treatment

If you were to produce a 3 minute sound bite from an interview with minister Daudi Migereko
about his claims to land rights and you returned 7 with minutes then unless the material is
stunningly good, 4minutes will just have to go, so the last 4minutes can just be chopped off or the
best
 Sound clips should be unique
Using sound clips makes sense if they contain, for example, strong feelings, expressions of
opinion or humour. Sound clips are also unique if they tell something about the personality of
the interviewee, if they are witness reports or historical sound documents.
 Sound clips should be neither too short nor too long
The listener needs time to adapt to the new voice. However, the sound clip should not be so
long that it dominates the news bulletin or the report. In the case of news with clips, the sound
clips should not be longer than 20 seconds. For longer journalistic reports of between 2 and 4
minutes, each sound clip should be between 15 and 30 seconds long.
 Be careful with expert language in sound clips
Journalists often use sound clips when they have to report about complex subject matters, e.g.
complicated scientific or business topics. Frequently, the journalists themselves have not fully
understood all details and aspects of these issues. But they fear that they might be unable to
translate the specialists’ jargon into generally understandable language. Such sound clips
containing expert lingo are
 At the end of the sound clip the voice should be down
The listener should hear that the interviewee has come to the end of their sentence and/or
thought. If you cut a sound clip at a point where the interviewee’s voice is up, the listener will
suspect that the interviewee may have further expanded on his or her thought. So a statement
cut in mid-sentence may sound like you are trying to keep something from the listener –
manipulating what was actually said.
 Be careful with the introduction of sound clips
When leading into a sound clip, journalists frequently make the mistake of saying exactly the same
things that the listener will hear again from the interviewee.
This is a waste of time and it is boring for the listener. Instead, guide the listener towards the
statement of the sound clip. Explain who is speaking and what they are speaking about, but do not
summarize what the statement is about in advance.

The use of Vox Pop
The meaning of Vox Pop is simply ‘the voice of people’. This is most often achieved by means of
stopping people in the street and asking them a question which is recorded in video or audio. With
vox pop you have to be quick and firm, the availability of minutes you will have will be at least
three minutes to ask the person the question, due to the fact it is being taken on the street; the
interviewee may urgently need to be somewhere else so as a journalist you have to make sure there
is a minimum of three questions and you have to ensure they are all open questions, this is vital in
order for you to be able to edit the opinions you want to keep and the ones you don’t need.
Each script is written for a presenter to read out. Think of a news script like the lines of a play
with an invisible PRESENTER: at the beginning.
Header, Tape Cues, Story Tags and Lead-in
The Header
Most broadcast media require reporters to put some basic information right at the top of the page.
This information is a brief description or keyword that identifies the story. This information is
called the slug in print journalism. These include:
The writer’s name or initials
Date the story was written
Tape Cues
Broadcast newscast is a combination of reports that are read by the newscaster without actuality
and reports with the voice of news makers and voice reports of reporters. Hausman et al (2011)
advised readers to take note of three things:
1. That there is a sound file (or tape) and it should run at this point in the story. The script should
contain an advisory listening name of the file –the title with which it is labeled
2. The time of the sound file (actuality). This is important so that the newcaster can be ready to
start reading at the appropriate time.
3. The out cue/ cue out. The cue out is a written transcription of the final words spoken on the tape.
This is the newscaster cue to begin reading the rest of the story.
Story Tags

The news report ending with the correspondence report is not always the best way to end a story
before picking another story to read. It is advisable to always end a report after the actuality with a
sentence or two – this is tags.
An example
Sample Slug:
10/12/2015 7AM SONKO SHALIF
(Date the story was written) (Time of filing the story) (The writer’s name or initials)
Police in Nakaseke District have impounded 103 heads of cattle for violation of quarantine
regulations. Seven trucks that were carrying the cattle were also impounded, and four people are
held by police over the charges.
The seven trucks were transporting cattle at night from a quarantined area to the different markets.
Two of the trucks carrying 22 heads of cattle are at Kiwoko police station, while the other five are
held at Wakyato sub-county.
Nakaseke District Police Commander, Denis Kamugisha says the animals and the trucks were
apprehended on Tuesday night after a tip off from concerned residents.
Luganda //Cue in: “Emmotoka zikwatidwa………
Cue Out:……………….emisango egyo.” //
Savannah region police spokesperson, Lameck Kigozi confirmed they impounded the cattle and
trucks, and arrested some suspects. Kigozi says these will be charged in court.
English //Cue In: “We impounded………….cue in/ cue out.
Cue out: …….blink an eye on anybody.”//
Dr. Moses Sekabembe, a veterinary officer at the district says the suspects will face charges of
spreading the Foot and Mouth Disease and face imprisonment for two years or a fine of two
million shillings, or both.
Luganda //Cue In: Abakwatiddwa……… cue in and out
Cue Out: ………….kutambuza nte.”//
In June this year, government announced a fresh cattle quarantine following the outbreak of the
Foot and Mouth Disease in Nakaseke. The disease was reported in Ngoma town
council, Kinoni, Wakyato and Ngoma sub-counties (tag)

End
Strong introduction
Always start with a strong opening, which catches the listeners’ attention, arouses their interest and
makes them want to hear more about the news. A slow, boring introduction will make listeners
switch off and turn their attention to other things.
 The outward appearance of the radio script
When writing a radio news script, the contents and structure are undoubtedly the most
important factors. However, if you want to get your message across to the listeners, it is also
important how you present your piece. It’s helpful if your script is easy to read. This will make
a good and lively presentation possible. You can focus totally on the text and the presentation
instead of battling with unnecessary obstacles.
 Only write on one side of the paper
If you have to turn the pages of your script to read text on the reverse sides, your listeners will
hear you rustling the pieces of paper. This unwanted sound will distract them. In addition, you
may get confused whether you’ve already read both sides of the paper. You can make things
easier for yourself if you just write on one side. You can then put each page aside once you
have read it and don’t have to look if there is anything written on the reverse side.
 Define space between the lines and clear paragraphs
Generous space between the lines of your text will make it easier for you to focus on the text
while you are reading it on the air. It will prevent you from accidentally slipping into the wrong
line. If you leave space between the lines of your text, you can add pronunciation and
intonation marks over or under the words. Clearly define paragraphs within your text. This
visual aid will show you at first sight where to pause and take a breath.
 Write legibly
When you are reading an illegible script on the air, you have to focus mainly on deciphering
the text. Your pronunciation and intonation will not be lively. It’s very likely that you will
stumble over certain words or phrases that are hard to read. Listeners will think that this sounds
unprofessional. Their attention will be diverted from the contents of your report.
 Avoid words and expressions that are hard to pronounce
When writing a text, avoid words that you might stumble over later, when you present the text
on the air. If you think you could have a problem pronouncing a certain word, choose a simpler
one. Numbers and figures can also be linguistic stumbling blocks, especially large numbers. It
helps if you write out ‘thousands’, ‘millions’ and ‘billions’ in words rather than figures. It’s

easier to read ‘two million’ than to see a figure like ‘2,000,000’ and have to count the zeroes to
figure out whether you are dealing with millions or billions.
 Check the script
If you stick to the above-mentioned tips and tricks, you should have a radio script that looks
virtually impeccable. But before you can present it in the studio, you should read it aloud at
least once. This way you will discover which sentences may be too long, where you may have
the odd unpronounceable word and whether your report has the intended total length. Finally,
ask a colleague to go over your script or to listen to you reading it aloud. Maybe your colleague
will spot phrases or words that are hard to understand or do not make sense. Once you have
been given the green light, you are ready to go into the studio and present your text on the air.
The form of the news bulletin as a whole
It’s just as important for your station or news desk to agree on a uniform design for all news
bulletins as it is to define a certain format for each individual news item.
Once again, you have numerous options:
 Musical introduction of the news broadcast (news jingle/intro)
 Music underlying the whole news bulletins (news bed)
 Short jingles between the individual news items
 A short overview of the most important news headlines at the beginning and/or at
the end of the bulletin. News Headline is the top line of each story of the day, its
role is to give a snapshot of the key story of the day, and a headline's aim is to
quickly and briefly draw attention to the story. The purpose of a headline is to
attract audience and to reassure the listeners to keep listening. In radio news
bulletin, the headline is recognised to be the significant reason in the
effectiveness of radio news.
 The weather report at the beginning or at the end of the bulletin
 Giving the name of the editor at the beginning and/or end
 Giving the exact time before and/or after the news bulletin
 Standard salutation

Ranking stories or News Alignment
One of the major problems in bulletin preparation is ranking the stories in correct order.
The job of the news producer (in some station it is the job of the news editor) is to decide which
story goes on air and the one that does not. As part of his duty, the producer must decide the order
of importance.
News assembly process can involve both choosing the stories and story order and choosing the
sound elements as well.
Just follow some simple steps.
First read through all the stories available. Then go through them again, making three lists (or
selecting the stories on to three piles). These categories should be:
1. Important stories which you must use;
2. Stories which you can use, but which are not so important;
3. Stories which you cannot use, for any reason.
REHEARSAL
There are two distinct kinds of rehearsal: the dry-run, sometimes called a read-through, and the
microphone rehearsal.
 The dry-run is a rehearsal held in an office, a conference room or an unmanned studio that
is a studio without the equipment switched on.
It reduces the pressure on studios and technical services. A straightforward talk may need only one
dry-run whereas a complex drama may need several and the technical operator to attend at least
one so that he can familiarize himself with the dramatic production. For news anchors this give a
mastery of the copy scripts, strengthens diction among others.
 The microphone rehearsal is held in a studio with all technical facilities working.
Talks seldom need any microphone rehearsal if' they have been read through before, but drama
and documentary need several. Drama producers frequently rehearse parts of productions
separately, with separate rehearsals for sound effects, music and actors before bringing all three
elements together at the microphone.

The producer has much to do at a rehearsal; he has to ensure that the performance follows his
interpretation of the hama-that the actors really live their roles, that the timing and pace of the
performance are right, pronunciation correct, cues properly taken, that the performance is smooth
and sounds as it should.
Use these guidelines for reading scripts: both at rehearsal and on air
 Prepare. Unless there's a real emergency, never read anything on air that hasn't been
practiced aloud. Tongue-twisters are not always apparent until they are spoken aloud.
 Understand. Never read anything that could be confusing to your listener.
Your voice will reflect it. Take the time to re-write the script before reading.
 Mark the script. Underline key words, mark pauses (with "/" or another symbol), write
phonetic pronunciations for foreign words.
 Choose the appropriate tone of voice. How much emotion/feeling should be conveyed?
Should the tone be light-hearted or serious?
 Look ahead. Don't look at the script word by word. Train yourself to take in whole blocks
of words.
 Handle mistakes professionally. If you make a mistake, don't panic. If it's a big error--one
that could cause confusion or misunderstanding—apologize and correct it. Otherwise, take
a breath and carry on. Don't draw attention to stumbles.
NEWS PRESENTATIONS
News reading is generally the preserve of a station’s leading and clearest Announcers. The news
reader should be well informed and familiar with the Background to every story that he/she reads.
S/he must be well versed with the language.
Things on which a news Anchor should put much emphasis while reading news;
Flaw (also means rhythm e.g. slow, fast or intermediate)
it is clear that a news cast with a reading speed that is too quick and with minimal breaks
impacts negatively on the understanding of the message, while a slow reading speed with too
many pauses negatively affects the listener's attention. It is thus necessary to find the
average between the two, and especially, to know that the speech rate has to vary depending
on the meaning of each part of the message.
Intonation
Intonation can be defined as a group of pitch variations produced in a spoken sequence that
characterizes the type of sentence, differentiates the syntactic units, and defines the emotions
and attitudes of the speaker. These pitch variations are expressed in phonetic or melodic groups,

that is, in units of verbal sense that are delimited by pauses or pitch movements. This pitch
distribution through delimitation in phonetic groups is particularly influential during
information processing, given that “the listener will base her decoding of the message mainly on
these (and possibly other) phonologic units, and not on the syntactic structure of the sentences”
Pronunciation: S/He should know accurately the pronunciation of all words which appear in the
bulletin-words in everyday speech and the names of places and people appearing in the news.
Punching with regard to the qualities of the voice, the studies indicate that the audience prefers
low pitched voices, resonant timbres, and clear and strong intensities. This combination is the
optimal to generate sensations of credibility, confidence, powerful and safety. These qualities
are very important in radio news.
Intro includes:
salutation which is a Greeting: Usually, good morning, good afternoon good evening, then the
time, the anchor’s name, frequency and station)
Outro: Outro includes name of station and frequency, thanking listeners, informing them to stay
tuned, repeating headlines and his/her name; Intro Speed and Timing (slow down, it’s not a race)
to end the news a quick look at the headlines once again,…. “Main stories”…., with that we
come to the end of the news. Thank you for listening and stay tuned to (name of the radio) or
announce the continuing program purposely for continuity of programming.
Am Andy mayuni
Voicing/Microphone practice
 Keep the microphone 6 –12” from your mouth.
Generally, keep the microphone as close as possible to your mouth to avoid picking up unwanted
room reflections and reverberation. Do not get too close either.
Proximity effect, which is an increase in low frequency response that occurs as you get closer to a
directional microphone, can cause your voice to sound “muddy” or overly bassy.
 Aim the microphone toward your mouth from below or above.
This placement minimizes “popping” caused by plosive consonants (e.g. “p” or “t”).
 Use an external pop filter.
Though most microphones have some sort of built-in windscreen, an additional filter will provide
extra insurance against “p” pops. The pop filter can also serve as a reference to help you maintain a
consistent distance from the microphone.
 Keep the microphone away from reflective surfaces.
Reflections caused by hard surfaces, such as tabletops or music stands, can adversely affect the
sound quality captured by the microphone

 Speak directly into the microphone.
High frequencies are very directional, and if you turn your head away from the microphone, the
sound captured by the microphone will get noticeably duller
 Wraps
News wrap is an audio piece with the news wrapped around it, this is added to provide
more information and to maintain the listener's attention.
A wrap can also mean a piece that is a summary of news lines or elements in a story.
 Live Cross
A live cross is where a reporter has just finished he/she's part and passes it onto another
reporter to provide us more facts of the story. A live cross is done to give us the immediacy
of what's happened and most important to give the news of what's going on at that
particular time.
 Two Way
A Two Way is a format of news report in which the newsreader interviews a reporter who
is generally out in the field and at the scene to get the information we need from the main
story. In an illustrated two way, the reporter introduces clips of audio if the news is on radio
or otherwise video if it’s being reported on television.
This is also when the newsreader is leading in the story with the sound giving us
specific vital details in the form of a live cross.
Closing stories
Sometimes called tail-enders, closing stories are almost as important as lead stories. They are the
last stories your listeners will hear and remember from the bulletin.

Script writing
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the different types of script formats
 Understand broadcast markings
 Identify the different sound element that can be incorporated in broadcast script
 Write a broadcast script with little supervision
3.0 INTRODUCTION
A broadcast script is like a road map that guides the production and presentation of both live and
recorded programmes. Broadcast script writing means writing for radio and television. The radio
script is all about writing for the ear while scriptwriting for television is explained as writing for
the ears as well as the eyes. Broadcast writing is different from print writing in that print writing
comes in hard copy and can be read at when and where the reader wish, but in broadcast script
writing, simple and short sentences are employed to make it conversational to make it fit into its
transient nature. This unit is dedicated to taking student through the process of script writing,
scripts formats and other elements that can be incorporated into broadcast script.
3.1 Scripting
Writing for radio and television requires that the copywriter adopt a more natural friendly tone to
make the script appear as if the presenter is carrying on a conversation with another person even if
the message is targeted at millions of people. Doing this meant using the spoken words of everyday

speech. Writing for broadcast medium also entails understating the medium, the uniqueness,
advantages and challenges of the medium.
It is important to keep in mind when writing for radio and television, that the words spoken are
heard once as such it is critical to always use easy, simple short sentence and understandable words
that the audiences know. For radio, the scripts are delivered through sound and the in case of radio
of television sound and picture, the script should therefore try to bridge the gap between the
present and his/her audience.
The rules of writing broadcast script are presented below:
For Titles and names:
 Titles must precede names.
 Use complete name in the first reference, then last name or first name thereafter.
 Drop obscure names or places that add nothing your story
For Quotations:
 Use direct quotes sparingly.
 Let people say their own words.
 IF you must use a direct quote set it off with such phrases as: “In the words of...” or “As he
put it...” or try to paraphrase as much as possible. This will help you avoid the words
sounding as if they were yours.
Writing hints
 Keep sentences short.
 Prefer the simple to the complex.
 Put action in your verbs.
 Write like you talk.
 Use plenty of pauses or music bridges.
 Don’t use technical jargon. The medium is not a medium of explanation

 Write with emphasis on picture.
 Don’t get “wordy.”
 Read the cop aloud
Words
 Eliminate most abbreviations, but you can abbreviate Mr., Mrs., Dr.
 Write out days, months, states, military titles.
 Numbers
 Spell out figures through eleven.
 Use hyphenated combinations. Example: 33-thousand.
 Use “st,” “nd,” “th,” and “rd” after dates, addresses and numbers to be read as ordinary
numbers.
Types of Script Format
There are different types of broadcast script format but basically they can be grouped under three:
fully scripted programme, the outline or semi-scripted programme, and the show format or the run-
down sheet.
 The Fully scripted format: fully scripted programme format are scripts that contain all
audio material that would be spoken on air as well as the director’s instruction or makings.
Programmes that employ this format include news programmes, dramatic programmes
documentaries, commercials, station breaks.
 The Outline Scripted format: this format is best suited for programmes that do not require
that every word be written down. Programmes that adopt this format include educational
programmes, variety shows, and interviews programmes. This format entails the writing of
the opening and closing credit. In other words the outline script is used in news or sport
coverage, where certain information for openings, closings and commercial introductions
are carefully written into the script.
 The Show Format or Run-Down Sheet/semi-scripted format: this format is particularly
suitable for routine programmes that are either daily or weekly. This type of script format

provides all the vital information about a production precisely and concisely with each
segment of the programme showing the talent involved, where it is taking place and its
approximated running time. The beauty of this script format is that the same format is the
same.
Parts of broadcast script
Broadcast scripts are divided into three parts, the identification part both at the top of the script
and at the bottom of the script and the body. The information at the top of the script depends
largely on the in-house style of each station, but generally the identification (ID) part at the top
of a script contains station ID – name of the station; name of the programme, time of
transmission, date of transmission, name of presenter(s), the signature tune (sig tune) among
other information.
The information at the bottom ID also depend on a station in-house style and it may consist of
the name/initials of the writer, the editor/director and source of information which could be
coverage, agency report of press release. Note that the top ID and bottom ID are voiced in the
case of radio and are shown as opening and closing credits in television for people to read.
On the other hand, the body of the script contains all action and speech cues. The speech is
what the reader/presenter reads on air while the action cues are those instructions that are not to
be read but carried out on air. The action or instructions must be written in capitals capital
letters to show that it must not be voiced.
Editing Broadcast Copy
Broadcast scripts are not presented on air as written in the first draft; this is because the copy must
pass through the editor on duty, he/she must look out for the pitfalls, wrong spellings and likely
legal issues in the copy.
The following simple rules will help you ensure that your copy remains readable.
 Insert punctuation: When you insert that missing period, quotation mark, comma, question
mark, etc., neatly place the mark where it belongs.
 Correct Spelling Neatly: Never try to correct a letter within a word, block out the
misspelled word and write the corrected word on top of the block.
 Inserting Words or Phrases: Insert a word or phrase by printing the word or words above
the line and indicating where you want to insert it.
3.2 Preparing the Copy

Although the product of radio is music and the spoken works while for TV is the spoken works and
the video, there are other basic elements like; style, timing and pacing that can aid the delivery of
the copy in the most interesting way.
Form and Style
 Broadcast script must be typewritten and double-spaced to help the reader pick words
from each line clearly.
 The copywriter must also try as much as possible to use fairly short sentence. This will
help the reader control his/her breathing and inflections, but most especially, punctuation
must contribute to readability.
 Another way to make broadcast script interesting and meaningful is to underline phrases
that you want emphasized or stressed.
 The heading or ID as stated earlier should contain information that will indentify the
station and the programme.
 Just as each station has its own in-house style/format, copywriters and presenters also must
develop a style that define them and set them apart from others.
 The style you develop is an individual thing, “it must reflect an aspect of your personality,
one with which you are comfortable with.
Specimen of A Radio Script
Name of Station: 90.7 Umcat Fm
Programme: A Day with Celebrity
Date of Broadcast: Tuesday 13th 0ct 2015
Time of Broadcast: 11.00 Hrs Gmt
Producer: Athieno Veronica
Table that carries the different programme segments, (refer to copy appended with the
interview program)
The voice quality is especially important in broadcast production.
While well-modulated tones may be of some advantage, they are not essential. Style compensate
for almost any voice quality…your style develop over a long period of time. It will be closely tied
to your personality and interests.

The style a presenter adopts in delivering his /her script will endear audience to his /her programme
and the personality. It wins audience loyalty to a station and more commercials for a station. it is a
method that becomes a part of a presenter over time. It includes the way he/she reads a copy, the
tone of his/her voice and his/her pacing and timing.
Pacing and Timing
Pace and timing plays a vital role in how the meaning and acceptance of a message.
The two elements are seen as the two most important elements in oral style and yet the most
elusive. Pacing includes rate of delivery, as well as the variations in the rate.
Variation can be described as variations of voice and it should be made to transit smoothly. Timing
on the other hand, according Hasling (1989), timing is the sense of knowing how long to “hold” on
a word or a pause before picking up the next line. Pennington (2006) adds that:
If you were listening to a piece of music which had the same pace and rhythm all the way
through, no crescendos, no allegros, no change of pace or mood, you would soon be bored! It’s
exactly the same with a programme. Particularly within a magazine programme, be aware of the
importance of changing the mood and pace as you move from one item to another…Timing is
crucial. Be aware of it from the beginning of your work on a programme. Don’t neglect it; don’t
continually leave it till later. You will need to be aware of overall timing of the programme, and
the timing of every item within it, including all the presentation (menu, links, closing).
3.3 Sound Elements in Broadcast Production
Words alone cannot tell the story a scriptwriter or the director of a radio/TV programme wants to
pass across to the audience. He needs other elements like music, sound effects, voice quality
among others. Here are ways by which music, sound effects and voice quality can add meaning to
an overall production.
Music
Music can be incorporated into radio and television programme for a variety of reasons. These
include:
 Music can be use an audience along from one feeling to another for instance
music can be use to create an illusion of love, hatred, horror or happiness.
 Music should be used to establish mood and atmosphere but it is important not
to over-emphasize emotional moments.

 It can be employed as a programme identification tune which is otherwise called
signature tune.
 In some cases, mu music can be use to bridge two segments of a programme
 In some children and adult programmes music can be use to tell a story.
Music can be use in any radio or television programme; however when using music it must be a
song that the audience is familiar with, in other words it must be interesting and appealing to the
audience.
It is important that you do not speak over vocals. The announcer’s voice may clash with the lyrics
of the song playing under if it not carefully executed.
Music is such an evocative tool that it is used in a great many radio production task; unfortunately,
it is also frequently misuses and overused. By indicating that music can be misused or overused, I
implying that the radio or television scriptwriter and director be wary of how and when to use
music in any production. Hausman et al therefore identify what they called the “do use music” and
the “do not use music”.
Do use music
 When you can find a logical reason to do so, use music to create and reinforce a theme.
 When the music has a logical purpose and fits into the format of your station.
Do not use music
 Do not use music strictly as reflect: don’t make it “other stations are using it, I have to use
it”, in “many times you’ll be better off without it”.
 Do not use music indiscriminately. According to them this warning applies specifically to
the novice radio producer who is tempted to use currently popular music within
announcements or other productions, whether or not it serves to reinforce the message.
Sound Effects
Sound effects can come from audio files, pre-recorded tapes or CDs; and they are use to either
indicate location or action. When sound effect is applied to production appropriately it can add
meaning to the message on the one hand but if it is wrongly applied it may make the message
appear amateurish. According to Hausman et al (2010), there are two good reasons for using sound
effects which they called “do use of sound effects”.
Do use of sound effects
 To save time and words
 To inject drama into the programme

Do not use sound effect
 Do not use sound effect just because they are there: According to them, sound effects are
excellent production tool, but if they’re used just for the sake of using them, they are
inappropriate and can detract from the message.
Voice quality
Most scriptwriters often want to have a say in who delivers the script they have written. Their
reason, though may sound ridiculous, is based on the quality and the inflections the reader can
bring into the script to drive the message home. A well-written script with a powerful message may
lose its power if the presenter failed to inject the right voice quality. Voice quality, according to
Hausman et al (2010), is the overall image that an announcer’s voice projects. In their opinion, the
voice of a reader should not have defects of any sort. They write further on possible factors that
may cause distractions in the voice of a reader:
One of the most common distractions is improper breathing by the announcer. Over-breathy
voices, except when they are a well-known novelty, sound amateurish. Often in experienced
announcers can be heard gasping for air between phrases. Such gasping sounds might not be
apparent in everyday speech, but a mic can be merciless
The way out of the above problem, is to maintain generous breath support instead of trying to talk
until all your breath is expanded. By planning where to take breaths you can hit the right
inflections
3.4 Useful tips for writing for Radio
The good thing about radio and television is that they carry programmes with powerful messages
that are capable of changing lives positively. So when you are writing for these media keep the
following in mind:
 Decide what the programme is for: knowing what the programme sets out to achieve will
you as a scriptwriter to come up with a script that will do just that. Pennington (2000)
agrees that asking yourself what the programme is for may seem an odd, even a ridiculous
but according him, this seemingly obvious question is useful – because it forces you to
focus – and stay focused – on exactly what you’re trying to do.
 Providing answer to this question will help you to re-focus, and make decisions about what
is right for the programme you want to make. The programme can be to inform, educate,
entertain or campaign or do all.

 Who is the target audience: knowing who the message is targeted at. The demographics of
the target audience help you design appropriate message and language to use.
 Decide on the format or approach you want to use
 Research: Research is the foundation of any story, so carry out comprehensive research on
whatever topic or issue you are working on.
 Be creative: being creative means selecting specific details that will help create vivid
pictures and allow the listener to imagine what is being described.
3.5 CONCLUSION
Words scripted down in the broadcast script are just one of the various elements that make a
radio/TV production meaningful and successful. Although important must be carefully selected to
add meaning to the overall image the production is trying to create. Also important to the success
of the production, is the ability of the presenter to develop distinct style that will give him an edge
over others anchoring similar programmes on other station; and his ability to control his pace and
timing.
3.6 SUMMARY
So far you have learnt from this unit:
 Meaning and uses of sound effects
 Different sound element in broadcast production
 That individual style is a product of many factors
 That pacing and timing contribute to the success of broadcast
copy
ASSIGNMENTS
 1. What are sound effects and how do they influence a successful production
 2. How is pace different from timing?

 3. Discuss three strategies available to a presenter if he/she must deliver copy
effectively.
4.0 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the concept of programme format and why it is necessary in broadcast media;
 Understand the concept of station philosophy;
 How audience affect station format; and
 The need to promote the station
3.1 Station format, philosophy and its implication
A station programme or station philosophy refers a certain kind of approach to fulfilling its role in
the society or toward its audience.
A stations programme reflects the philosophy of the station ie the programme is designed to
achieve the goals of the station.
Every station must have a programming structure. The most meaningful way we can organize radio
stations is according to their format, a type of consistent programming designed to appeal to a
certain segment of the audience.
4.2 How audiences affect a program format
Before a station determines the type of programmes it airs, a lot has to be put into consideration.
They must have researched into the market they are operating, the people and their needs. Their
efforts culminate into designing programmes that will appeal to the audience and advertisers.
A well arranged programme will attract a number of listeners to the station.
In other understanding a format is the arrangement of programme elements into sequence that will
attract and hold the audience segment a station is seeking.
On the other hand radio programming format:
Programming is the most important aspect of radio station operation. The message that is
communicated is, after all, the central reason for all of the technological talents and energies that
go into sound transmission.

In other words, programme does not match the needs and aspirations of the audience, getting
money to stay in business may be difficult. Generally speaking, the research that a station conducts
on its audience will reveal the categories of people who make up the audience, their profession,
age, gender, location and economic status. Station programme tend to tilt towards what the
research outcome is. If the audience has more teenager and young adult, the type of programme a
station will transmit will appeal more to this category of audience that it will to the older audience.
4.3 Programme format
Generally speaking, there are two main formats – music and talk. Every type of programme falls
under these two broad categories. The two categories are discussed below:
Music format
There are many variations of music formats; each variation is built around the specific genre of
music.
Country-western format: This programme format mostly attracts older generation and those who
love country music. Music in this format reveals emphasis on steel guitar and vocals in a
southwestern accent.
Folk: This is a broad category that can include contemporary music as well as traditional. This
could include highlife music that is found in most African society
Adult contemporary (AC): This consists of a blend of suitable oldies and current soft-rock hits.
Classical: This refers to serious music that has survived for several generations. It is the type of
music that is played by symphony orchestras in concerts hall.
Jazz: This type of music is highly rhythmical and often free-form music.
Gospel/Religious music: This type of music is often inspirational and used to spread the gospel.
Reggae music is associated with Jamaicans and is played among different African countries.
Top 40: On some radio stations it could be Top 10, Top 100 and are labeled so because they are
current hit records. It consists of selections that are most popular in terms of requests and record
sales.
Talk Format
Radio stations rely on speech and music to fill the air time.
Talk programmes are basic form of broadcasting and existed before radio began, so it is no surprise
that the other broadcast programmes is an off-shoot of talk.

The different programmes that emanate from talk is listed below, however these programmes will
be discussed extensively in the subsequent pages.
Talk shows, Drama, Documentary, News, News magazine, Interview and Discussion
5.0 CONCLUSION
Programming is the most important function of a radio stations the reason d’être of their
operations, but the truth is if the programme does not see the broadcast audience appeal to the
audience, the station would be out of business.
Although there are various ways a station can source for programme, it is often advisable for each
station to develop its own programme that will reflect its philosophy and at the same time attract
and hold the audience.
This is the ingredient that every station needs to get commercials or sponsors for their programmes.
5.1 Exercise
2. If you are the manger of UMCAT fm 90.7 a radio station that has the program format of less
talk more music and caters strictly for the Ugandan audience, make a suggestion of the type of
music that your station will play to satisfy your listening audience.
3. What do you understand by a station philosophy or program format?
RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION
Now let us learn about the different stages of radio programme production.
Whatever we do, there has to be a clear plan. In the case of radio production also, there is a well
accepted process of production which is carried out in three stages.
Let us list them out.
a) Pre-production
b) Production and
c) Post-production

a) Pre-production
As the title suggests, this is the first stage before the actual production
i) An idea is born: This phase includes how a programme is born as an Idea and its
conceptualization. The topic or subject matter is decided.
ii) Plan of action: After the topic is decided, a plan of action is worked out. Here the format of the
progamme is determined i.e whether the programme is a talk, discussion, interview, drama,
documentary etc. Once that is clear, the right person for writing the script and the performers are
decided. The plan of action would also determine the equipment for outside recordings that are
required. The time and venue of the recording are also worked out.
iii) The script is examined to make it suitable for broadcast. It is examined according to the
principles of writing for radio or in other words ‘for the ear’. We will discuss this is detail in the
next section.
iv) Paper work: If people who are not working in the radio station are involved for writing or
providing voice for the programmes, they have to be invited with an agreement to accept the job or
assignment. This type of agreement is referred to as a contract. Similarly, permission is often
required to interview certain people if the programme is based on such interviews. Therefore, as
you can see, there is a lot of paper work at the pre-production stage.
v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.
b) Production: This is the actual process of recording and editing a radio programme. Proper
studios, microphones and computers are required to record and edit the programme.
c) Post production: Writing to inform people involved in the production is a major activity during
this phase. The progamme has to be given publicity both on radio and in other media. This is done
to ensure that people know about the programmes and also listen to them. The announcements for
the presentation of the programme are also written and provided for the actual broadcast of the
programme.
RADIO PROGRAMMING CONTENT
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Programming
3.2 Construction Programme Format
3.3 Sources of Programme
3.4 Programme Scheduling Strategies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutored-Marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Broadcast programming or scheduling is the practice of arranging television or
radio programmes in a daily, weekly, or season-long schedule.
Programme scheduling strategies are employed to give programs the best possible chance of
attracting and retaining an audience. They are also used to deliver programs to audiences
when they are most likely to want to listen to them and deliver audiences to advertisers in the
composition that makes their advertising most likely to be effective. Having said that
therefore, it is expedient to expose you to strategies broadcast stations use to arrange their
programmes to hold loyal audience and to possibly get other potential audience in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able
to:
o Identify the different types of programme scheduling strategies.
o Distinguish between programme and programming
o Describe how programme formats are constructed
o Discuss the various programme sources

3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1
Programming
A radio programme is what a station has to offer to its listeners and advertisers. The type of
programme a station has determines the type of people who listens to it and the amount
of adverts it commands.
A radio program is a segment of content intended for broadcast on radio. It may be a one-
time production or part of a periodically recurring series.
Broadcast stations must through their programmes:
• convince listeners that they are on their side, and interested in what concerns
them;
• encourage them to feel part of the
programme;
• encourage them to contribute their views and concerns to you;
and
• Not to patronize
them.
On the basis of this therefore, the task of every programmer/producer/director is
to:
 Choose programs that meet the needs and wants of an audience.
 Negotiate the development or “rights” to a program.
 Organize those programs into a cohesive schedule that flows from one program to the
next.
 Market the programs to the appropriate audience.
 Convince advertisers the programs will reach their consumers.
In view of the above, every station attempts to arrange their programmes in such a way that
will suit the audience they cater for.
Broadcast Programming or scheduling is the defined as the practice of arranging television
or radio programmes on a daily, weekly, or season-long schedule. The practice is used to
schedule programmes to build an audience for a new show, retain audience, or compete with
other stations’ programmes.

Station schedule programme in a particular
time for the following reasons:
 To maximize the size of an audience targeted by advertisers.
 To attract audience for the programme;
 To give the programmes the best chance to survive or be accepted by its target audience;
 To match programmes with target audience available at the time; and
 Deliver audiences to advertisers in the composition that makes their advertisements
most likely to be effective.
3.2 Constructing programme
formats
Broadcast stations (radio) have different formats. For commercial broadcast stations, their
target is to get advertisers to bring their products and services to their station for airing and for
sponsorship of some of the stations` programmes. The concerns of this type of station are to
attract advertisers’ money so as to keep the station going while at the same time keeping the
interest of their listeners high. Without the money from advertisers, the station may find itself
at the brink of collapse.
Another station format is non-commercial broadcasting in which the station rely more on
subvention and public goodwill. Unfortunately, there is no private broadcast station operating a
non-commercial programme format and the few government stations transmitting public affairs
programmes still commercialize some of their other programmes. Ubc radio, radio star, magic
fm, ubc blue among others
Regardless of the kind of format a station adopts, it must also have a programming structure or
programme format that suits the station as well as the audience of the station. The programme
format a station adopts gives the station its identity as separate from other stations in the same
market.
Reasons why station must have a well-defined programming structure
“Programming is the most important aspect of radio operation.
The message that is communicated is the central reason for all of the technological talents
and energies that go into sound [audio] transmission.”
The message could be in form of speech or music. In this instance, some stations could adopt a
music format with a mixture of talk which in most cases forms part of their evening
programme. Others could adopt sports or news. It is however important to note that the
language of transmission also form part of the station`s format.

3.3 Sources of radio
programmes
A radio station sources its programmes two ways: internally and externally.
Internal programmes are those programmes that are developed and produced by staffs of the
station or a programme a station developed in collaboration with another agency.
Programmes sourced internally include among
others:
Networks may have lost its importance in some countries; they are still very relevant in
Uganda. Such Agencies include Uganda Radio Network. One such program is the national
perspective, a well researched documentary that is sent every week on the network with
subscribing stations free to download and play it to their audiences.
Network programming implies that the there are local stations that depend for some part of
their daily transmission even if they still have their own programmes that they transmit
to their audience. The relevance of network programmes are often in the areas of news, public
affairs programme, documentaries and even entertainment programmes like drama and talk
shows.
In another way, a programme could be syndicated to stations who have agreed on the terms with
the network to air the programmes.
When a station becomes affiliated with a network, it agrees to make a certain amount of its air
time available for the broadcasting of network programmes. Stations can also develop a
variety of programme from talk to drama to fill the air time. A station could also develop
musical programmes that suits the audience that tune to the station.
Programmes sourced externally include among
others:
Independent producers: there are independent producers who come up with programmes like
drama, soap opera, discussion and talk shows as a means of livelihood. These producers may
syndicate their programmes to interested stations. They buy air time from stations but source
funds from sponsor of the programme.
These many times present written proposals for their programs to aired onto radio
The draft of aproogram proposal could take the following fomart

HOW TO WRITE A PROGRAMME PROPOSAL
Personal Information
• None
• Address
• Phone
• Email Address
Program Information
• Program Host(s)
• Program Producer(s)
Note: The producer organizes the show’s content, arranges guests and any special equipment
needed.
• Length of proposed program
• Duration of series (in case needed)
• Program description (specify the design of your program, how you plan to divide the time)
• What experience and skills do you bring to the radio station?
The general genre of your program
For example; will it be a sport or music program, or a talk show?
Target audience of program
Please be as specific as possible with regards to the targeted program audience. Think about
specific subjects like age, level of education, field of interest and/or the ethnic background of your
audience. Are you mainly targeting men or women? Also: what is the need of a program for this
specific audience?
Production Information
• Where will this program be produced – at the Station or elsewhere?
• What, if any, costs are associated with the production?
• What, if any, resources will you request from the radio station?
Promotion and Evaluation
• What are the objectives of your program?
• How will you determine whether you achieved your objectives?
• Describe the contribution this program will make to the community?
• How do you plan to promote your program?

Note: Don’t forget to justify every point
Sign and Date.
Religious programmes: more stations are accepting religious programmes from sermons, live
crusades and magazine programmes.
Reality shows: the trend world over is reality TV, and UGANDA is not left out. Today
programmes Project Fame among others command good number of audience across the nation.
Live shows/coverage: stations like CBS (ENKUKA), SIMBA (EKIGUNDA), BUKEDDE
(EMBUTU YE MBUTIKIZI), BEAT FM (LUWOMBO) KABOOZI FM organize different
festival like, Christmas carnival; musical shows et cetera to fill the air and also source for
funds. Although these programmes are seasonal, they are planned (depending on when the
event occur) to fall into the station’s quarterly scheduling of programmes.
3.4 Programme scheduling
strategies
Flow/Stacking: is a technique used to develop audience flow by grouping together
programmes with similar appeals to “sweep” the listeners along from one programme to the
next. This strategy revolves round audience of broadcast programmes; the idea is for audience
of a particular programme to flow from one programme to another. For audience to flow into
another programme, the station must be ready to schedule its programmes with similar appeal
together.
Block programming: station schedules programmes back-to back for a period of time to retain
viewership. Scheduling programmes in blocks to make WONDERFUL sense since so much
of a programme rating success depend on habitual listership. Breaking viewers` habit can weaken
the power of that juggernaut. Thus, a network will gain the rights to air a chartbuster drama
o r popular rock concert and place it opposite a highly successful programme.
Day parting: most talk shows are scheduled for day time this is because they are geared
towards a particular demographic group. Most day time talk shows target women, youth and
singles, the reason for this is that it is the period of time they are available. Thus, day parting
involves dividing the day into several parts, and different radio/television programmes
appropriate for each day part are aired.
Stripping: this strategy involves running the same show in the same slot every day of the
week so as to retain listership. Forexampl radio stations like radio one fm 90,
107.5innman fm, 93.3 kfm Uganda have reserved 7-8 pm Monday through Friday in
which for about 60 minutes air political talk show program. For that slot, these radio station are
assured that their listeners are there and waiting Monday to Friday. Again, this works in
favour of both the station and advertisers. The station can use this to attract sponsorship, and
in any case advertisers are ready to air their messages on a station they know people are
viewing.
Hot switching: in hot switching the station eliminates any sort of commercial break. When
one programme ends and another begins, this immediately hooks the audience into listening to
the next programme without a chance to change the channel between programmes.

Tent pole programming: This strategy is similar to hammock programming in that a
programme is sandwich in between two. However in the case of tent pole programming, a very
strong programme with high followership is sandwich between two weak programmes at each
end. The essence of this strategy is to make people listen to the first weak programme while
they await the popular programme, and of cause most people will stay with the first weak one
so as not to miss the interesting programme. Also, programmers hope that by the time the
interesting programme ends, some may stay around to watch the second weak programme. In
other words, programmers bank on the strength of the central programme to draw viewers to
the two other weak
4.0 CONCLUSION
As interesting as some programmes are, they may not have the desired effect, if radio
programme directors did not place in the time slot when the target audience will be available to
listen. To ensure that the target audience is waiting to watch a programme, the station must
know the type of audience the programme is meant for; the time suitable for the programme;
and the programme the competition is offering at the same time.
5.0 In this unit you have
learnt:
 The concept of programming;
 How to programme a station;
 The various strategies a station can use to place its programmes
 How stations source programmes; and
 How programmes are constructed.
6.0 TUTORED-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Differentiate between programme and programming
2. What are the factors every programmer must take cognizance off when planning
station programme scheduling?
3. What is the essence of scheduling programmes

THE INTERVIEW PROGRAMME
Definition
 The interview is a focused exchange of questions and answers with the objective of
acquiring information.
 It aims to get comprehensive and clear information from the interview partner within the
shortest possible time.
 An interview can be conducted with the intention of broadcasting the complete exchange of
questions and answers.
 An interview can also be conducted in order to research information or to record individual
statements for news items or reports.
 One thing holds true for any interview: the interviewee is the main person. His or her
answers are the most important thing in the interview.
 Radio journalists only ask questions on behalf of the listeners – the questions they would
ask the interview partner if they had a chance to talk to him or her.
 The questions should be short and precise and directly targeted to reach our information
goal. We have to stay unbiased and should avoid getting emotional. Our personal opinions
must not shine through at any time during the interview.
 Length: between 3 and hours minutes
Strengths of an interview program
 Authentic, credible First-hand information, opinions and emotions containing spontaneous,
unplanned elements that is surprising and attractive for the listener.
 Makes the programme lively
 Cheap and quick to produce
Weaknesses of an interview program
 Risk of confusing the listener if you do not strictly adhere to a logical structure
 Only presents one person’s opinion
 It can be difficult for the journalist to stay in control of the interview – especially when
dealing with very experienced interview partners

 Experts have a tendency to use jargon; here, the journalist has to intervene and ask the
expert to repeat the information using simpler words
Procedures for Conducting Interviews
 Decide on the topic of the interview Focus on just one topic.
Don’t ask questions about side aspects – otherwise your interviewee will get carried away and the
listeners will be confused. Next, you should define your interview goal. Ask yourself what the
listeners want to know about this topic and what information is relevant for them. Do your research
properly. Nothing is more embarrassing than if an interviewee corrects mistakes in your questions
during an interview or if your interview partner gets away with making false statements because
you did not know enough about the topic and did not realize how you were being manipulated or
tricked. And finally: Define a lead question for
 Decide on who to invite as the guest:
There are many things you need to consider when deciding whom to interview: their expertise,
their ability to explain things in a straightforward way, their position and views with regard to the
topic of the interview.
In addition, you need to know whether your interviewee will be available for the interview and
willing to talk on the radio. It is also good to know beforehand if your interview partner is someone
who is quiet and shy or someone who will talk a lot during the interview.
 Write a letter of request to the guest
Before you start conducting an interview, you should always brief your interviewee about some
things:
 What is the topic and the focus of the interview?
 How long will the interview take?
 Will the interview be recorded or broadcast live?
 When will the interview be broadcast?
 Will it be broadcast as a whole or is it just a research or statement interview?
 When and where will the interview be conducted?
 Will it be a one-on-one interview, or will other interviewees or additional journalists be
present?

An example of invitation card for interview guest
To The President General
Uganda People’s Congress
Dear sir/madam
RE: INVITATION FOR INTERVIEW PROGRAM
90.7 Umcat FM, an English broadcasting radio station located on Block 10, Plot 421, Grace Road
Adjacent to Mengo S.S.S Near UMEME offices Nakulabye, takes pleasure to invite you to our
Nature Of Program/ (recorded or live) interview program Called Name Of The Program (eg. talk
to my country) Duration/Running Time running 7-8pm on the 3rd
of September 2015, Topic Of
And Focus Of Program eg.discussing the success of 2016 general election without electoral
reforms
I will be grateful for your positive response.
Your’s faithfully eg. (Athiono veronica)
Your contact eg (you phone number or email address)
Title eg. (Program Host).

 Prepare a script and make it available to the presenter and technical Director for the
programme
PROGRAM SCRIPT
STATION FREQUENCY AND NAME SAY 90.7 FM UMCAT FM
PROGRAM NAME:……………………………………….
DATE ………………………… DURATION 1HOUR (7-8PM)
TOPIC OF DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………..
PRESENTER ……………………………………………………………………………..
GUEST……………………………………………………………………………………..
Segment Content Timing
Intro Welcome the listener, reveal the
program name, the presenter’s
name , the guest’s name the topic
of the day
7:00-7:10pm
Break Adverts, program jingle 7:10-7:13pm
Introduction Topic
Back ground
Intro of guest
Interview Question and answer session
starting with the lead question
(Open questions) all question may
be listed for your guidance
7:13-7:48pm
Call in Invite phone calls from the listener
(as may deem necessary )
7:48- 7:50pm
Reaction Reaction to calls from listeners 7:50- 7:55pm
Closing remarks Last words from the guest, and your
closing remarks as well
7:55-8:00pm
Prepared by ………………….Approved by………………….
Types of interview questions

Closed questions
Yes/no question
This form of question only allows a ‘yes’, ‘no’ or ‘I don’t know’ answer. In most cases, you will
have to ask a follow-up question to find out more. This can be a waste of time. Yes/no questions
are good to pinpoint an interviewee on a certain topic, but they will not get the interviewee talking.
Information question
This form of a closed question is used if you want to get short and precise information.
It is also suitable as a follow-up question or in order to specify an issue.
Open questions
The answers to open questions are usually longer. You are giving the interviewee a chance to go
into more detail, to explain the background, reasons, developments or personal opinions
Special forms of question
Statement plus question:
The interviewer states a fact and then adds a question.
You should only choose this form of question if you are absolutely sure that the fact you are stating
is correct. If your statement is false or needs explanation, the interviewee will start a discussion
about your incorrect statement instead of answering your question. You run the risk of the
interview developing into an argument, something that you should avoid at all costs.
Suggestive question:
With a suggestive question, you are implying something in the hope that your interviewee will
agree or disagree in a very lively way. This form of question can force the interviewee to take a
stance and make the interview more dynamic.
But be careful: a suggestive question can sometimes be seen as a provocation by the interviewee.
This could spoil the atmosphere of your interview. A disturbance on the relationship level of the
interview will also affect the information level.
If things turn sour, your interviewee might even refuse to answer or ask a counter- question. In the
end, your listeners will perceive your questions as unfair or even aggressive.
Interpreting question
If the interviewee is not clear in his or her answers or tries to get away without making a clear
statement, you can offer a possible interpretation in a follow-up question. This would force the
interviewee to take a stance and make the original answer understandable for the listener.
Indirect question

In an indirect question, you confront your interviewee with a statement made by a third party.
Usually, this statement will be in opposition to what the interviewee thinks or says. Since you can
hide behind the critical remarks that someone else made, this method allows you to be somewhat
confrontational without hurting the interview atmosphere.
Sequence of questions
The interview as a whole should answer a lead question. Getting an answer to this lead question is
the information goal of your interview. It is usually best to start an interview with a general
question. This will give the interviewee a chance to talk freely and to get used to the interview
situation.
Your first question should be interesting and new for your interviewee and for your listeners. If
your first question is one that your interview partner has already answered frequently in other
interviews, he or she will not develop much interest in your interview, will be bored and provide
answers that sound like they’ve been rehearsed. However, if you ask your interview partner an
unusual question as an opener, he or she will be drawn into the interview – and so will your
listeners.
It is essential to get the listeners’ attention from the start of an interview and to make them feel
that it’s worth their time to keep on listening. Radio listeners decide within the first 30 seconds
of an interview whether they will keep listening or whether they will mentally switch off. So the
first question of your interview will already determine whether you will have an interested and
attentive audience or not.
One traditional form for an interview is the so-called funnel-structure. You start off with
rather general questions. During the course of the interview, you get more and more specific, until
you end with a yes/no question that pinpoints your interviewee. This way, your interview ends on a
clear statement from the interviewee.
And this will leave your listeners with the impression that the interview was worth their while
because it left them with clear and concise information
Do not stick to a sequence of questions that you may have prepared. Instead, try to derive your
questions out of the answers you get. This way, the flow of the interview sounds natural and
logical. It is vital that you listen to what your interviewee says. If you give interview partners the
feeling that you are personally interested in their answers, they will give much livelier answers than
if they feel that you are just ticking off a list of questions.
Badly worded questions

Radio journalism and production

Radio journalism and production

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