Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts. Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services, adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

1. CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY IN
GHANA
BY:
JUSTICE AMPOFO AGYEI

2. INTRODUCTION
Climate Change may be defined as the gradual change in the weather pattern of the world over a
long period of time mainly as a result of human activities with respect to the environment
(Akudugu and Alhassan, 2012). It is among the most important determinants of survival and
human livelihoods as it determines how and where human communities live, which foods they
can grow, the sources of water for domestic, industrial and other purposes, and how societies and
economic activities are organized (IPCC, 2007).
The impacts of climate change would add significantly to the development challenges of
ensuring food security and poverty reduction in most Sub-Sahara African countries in general
(Watson 2001). Many factors underscore the vulnerability of the communities to climate change
impacts. One notable result is that the livelihoods of the poor majority are highly dependent on
climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, forest and water resources. Agriculture is the
backbone of Ghana’s economy, providing employment to over 50% of its workforce and
supplying over 70% of its national food requirements. Unfortunately Ghanaian agriculture is
predominantly rain-fed with only 4% of its irrigation potential developed (Nutsukpo et al. 2012),
particularly in the semi-arid north (De Pinto et al, 2012), which makes this sector highly
vulnerable to climate change.
Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with adverse
effect of climate change including climate variability and extremes. It is a function of exposure,
sensitivity and adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007; Adger, 2003). Vulnerability measures the
exposure, sensitivity, and ability to cope with climate related hazards by accounting for the
overall status of food, water, environment, health, and infrastructure within a country (IPCC,

3. 2007). According to GAIN Index, 2013, Ghana ranks 55th on vulnerability to climate change.
Livelihood on the other hand was defined by The Department for International Development
(2001) as gains made by individuals or households and the various factors that affect the level,
maintenance and enhancement of these gains.
The high vulnerability of the agriculture sector to climate change would mean that over 70% of
Ghanaians who derive their livelihoods from agriculture would be highly vulnerable to food
insecurity, hunger, malnutrition and poverty. There is therefore the need for concerted efforts
toward tackling this menace.
THE ECONOMIC SECTOR AS A SOURCE OF LIVELIHOOD AND ITS
VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE CHANGE.
Natural resources are the major sources of wealth and livelihoods for majority of rural Ghanaians
and the state. Climate change is said to impact on natural resources negatively both directly and
indirectly. Directly, the increasing frequency of droughts reduces biodiversity; while low levels
of rainfall, high temperatures and winds exacerbate bush fires. Indirectly, climate change impacts
on the ability of economic sectors to provide adequate income and services to the population
which is translated into unsustainable harvesting of natural resources through extensification and
intensification of agriculture which have negative consequences for biodiversity, a major source
of tourism and ecosystem services. All these processes have a serious negative implications on
the livelihoods of individuals.
In the economic sectors, agriculture which is the largest employer within the Ghanaian economy
suffers the most from climate change. Agriculture production depends greatly on rainfall which

4. is a natural resource. The increasing variability of rainfall increases the risk associated with
farming as prediction becomes almost impossible. Agricultural production is predominantly rain-
fed and any changes in rainfall pattern would have serious impact on productivity. Rising
temperatures and frequent droughts will increase the incidences of bushfires and environmental
degradation. Investments in agriculture are becoming expensive, risky and less profitable.
Crop yields are likely to decrease due to an increase in the temperature. Arable land suitable for
agricultural production and soil fertility will decline in quality. Other agriculture sectors like
fisheries and poultry are all sensitive to climate. Production processes for food, feed, fibre,
beverages, energy, industrial crops, livestock, poultry, fish or forest will be impacted. An
increase in temperature is also likely to be conducive for a proliferation of pests that are
detrimental to crop and livestock production.
High temperatures would cause our water bodies to recede, which would lead to a decline in
water availability for irrigation purposes, and reduction fish production. An increase in
temperature is also likely to reduce soil moisture, moisture storage capacity and the quality of the
soil, which are vital nutrient for agricultural crops. And this can lead to reduction in crop yield
Water is important for agriculture, energy, health, sanitation, manufacturing and domestic uses.
Falling total rainfall affects the generation capacity of the hydro-electric dams. Salt water
intrusion along coastal communities without centralized water systems deprives these
communities of potable water for domestic and industrial uses.

5. THE SOCIAL SECTOR AS A SOURCE OF LIVELIHOOD AND ITS VULNERABILITY
TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The health and sanitation sectors have already been affected by climate change and will
experience further stress in the future. Increased incidences of water, air and food borne diseases
accompany flooding, drought, heat waves, and dry winds. These interact with the sanitation
nightmare experienced in urban areas with multiple health risks. For instance, poor sanitation
and urban flooding will increase the incidence of malaria and cholera, while poor water supply
will increase the incidence of guinea worm, and heat waves will exacerbate the incidence of
cerebro-spinal meningitis.
Substantial increase or reduction in temperature has the potential of negatively affecting ones
body’s temperature and metabolism processes. Projected increase in temperature and reduced
rainfall in Ghana, according to [45] will result in an increased incidence of measles although at
the current prevailing climate conditions there seems to be a transient but stable decline. Further,
there is an increase in the incidence rate of diarrheal cases due to the decline in rainfall and the
rise in the mean air temperature. Moreover, the current high temperature and decline in rainfall
pattern makes Ghana prone to guinea worm infestation. Also, cholera, cerebro spinal meningitis
and water related diseases also have potential to increase.
CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD SECURITY, AND LIVELIHOODS FRAMEWORK
In this framework, the vulnerability of a community is a function of the multiple and interrelated
biophysical and socioeconomic drivers that act upon the community and shape its adaptive
capacity. Hesselberg and Yaro (2006) develop a livelihood vulnerability framework to assess the
food insecurity situation in villages in marginal environments in northern Ghana. This

6. framework conceptualizes vulnerability as the result of the interactions among the threats faced
by people to their livelihoods (e.g., physical, economic, political shocks), their capabilities (a
function of their sensitivity and their resilience), and the outcomes of their strategies. The
framework does not deal specifically with the field of climate change, but recognizes that
livelihoods are affected by a multitude of stressors (or threats).
Figure 1: Climate change, food security, and livelihoods framework
MITIGATION
A climate change mitigation mechanism, Reducing Emission from Deforestation and
forest Degradation (REDD+) is anticipated to affect livelihoods of forest dependent

7. communities. REDD+ is an international mechanism of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which targets to reduce emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation, foster rural development and increase climate resilience
in developing countries (Awono et al; 2013, Isenberg, 2010). It functions by creating financial
incentives to encourage developing countries to reduce carbon emissions by conserving
their forests, enhancing carbon stocks and improve livelihoods of local communities. It is the
world’s largest payment for ecosystem service which gives carbon stored in the forest a
financial value (Dutschke, 2013).
GHANA NATIONAL REDD+ STRATEGY
The objectives for REDD+ in Ghana align with key National Development Plans for green
growth. This include reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, while
preserving Ghana’s forests resources and at the same time, transforming the agricultural sector,
expanding platforms for cross-sector and public-private collaboration and generating innovative,
substantial and sustainable economic and non-economic incentives to improve livelihoods across
all regions in Ghana.
The goals of REDD+ are to:
1. Reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation by at least 40% over ten years, while
enabling carbon stock enhancement through sustainable forest management and tree planting;
2. Preserve Ghana’s forests in order to sustain their ecosystem services, conserve biological
diversity, and maintain a cultural heritage for generations to come;

8. 3. Transform Ghana’s major agricultural commodities into climate-smart production systems
and landscapes;
4. Expand platforms for cross-sector and public-private collaboration and sustainable economic
development;
5. Generate innovative, substantial, and sustainable economic and non-economic incentives and
benefits to improve livelihoods across all regions of Ghana;
EMISSIONS REDUCTIONS PROGRAM FOR COCOA FOREST MOSIAC
LANDSCAPE
The program seeks to significantly reduce emissions driven by cocoa farming and other
agricultural drivers, as well as illegal logging and illegal mining, in a manner that will secure the
future of Ghana’s forests, significantly improve incomes and livelihood opportunities for
farmers and forest users, and establish a results-based planning and implementation framework
through which the government, the private sector, civil society, traditional authorities, and local
communities can collaborate towards this goal.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY
The 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy is the parent sector policy aimed at the conservation and
sustainable development of forest and wildlife resources for the maintenance of environmental
stability and continuous flow of optimum benefits from the social-cultural and economic goods

9. and services to the present and future generations, whilst fulfilling Ghana’s commitments under
international agreements and conventions.
Specifically, the policy objectives to be pursued and which should drive the implementation and
coordination of emerging interventions like VPA and REDD+ are:
1. To manage and enhance the ecological integrity of Ghana’s forest, savannah, wetlands and
other ecosystems for the preservation of vital soil and water resources, conservation of biological
diversity, enhancing carbon stocks for sustainable production of domestic and commercial
produce.
2. To promote the rehabilitation and restoration of degraded landscapes through plantations
development and community forestry informed by appropriate land-use practices to enhance
environmental quality and sustain the supply of raw materials for domestic and industrial
consumption and for environmental protection.
3. To promote the development of viable forest and wildlife based industries and livelihoods,
particularly in the value added processing of forest and wildlife resources that satisfy domestic
and international demand for competitively priced quality products.
4. To promote and develop mechanisms for transparent governance, equity sharing and citizens’
participation in forest and wildlife resource management.
5. To promote training, research and technology development that supports sustainable forest
management whilst promoting information uptake both by forestry institutions and the general
public.

10. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY
The development agenda of Ghana is underpinned by the objectives of the Ghana Poverty
Reduction Strategy (GPRS) and the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
1. Achieve sustainable forest management and reducing deforestation and forest degradation
and so developing a stable timber resource for Ghana’s future.
2. Increase value addition in the timber processing industry to create jobs with manufacturing
skills.
3. Increase rural employment and livelihoods through local management of off-reserve forests,
through mechanisms such as dedicated forests or Community Resource Management Areas
(CREMAs).
4. Support investments in plantation timber, tertiary processing, eco-tourism, and wildlife
facilities.
5. Fully capture economic and financial rents to ensure an effective regulator and a broader tax
base.
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
Various policy interventions use various adaptation and coping strategies in agriculture,
biodiversity conservation, water resources management to minimize the impact of climate
on their livelihoods
Climate-Smart Production
 Soil and Nutrient Management
 Water Harvesting and Use

11.  Cultivation of improved hybrids
 High yielding and drought resistance
 Disease and Pest resistant varieties
 No tillage / Minimum tillage
 Cover cropping
 Crop rotation
 Inter cropping
Tree planting and NTFPs farming
Planting of economic trees and adopting sustainable farming systems were also identified as
important coping strategies. Through capacity building and sensitization programmes, most
farmers have recognized the importance of planting economic trees on their farms to
shade their crops and NTFPs from intense sunshine and storms. There is an engagement in
planting commercial timber species as a livelihood strategy. Recognizing that the practice of
harvesting NTFPs from natural forests is not sustainable since the products are getting
depleted from the forest, farmers have started domesticating their production to
supplement their incomes and cushion them against poor cocoa harvests in the future.
Other alternatives include the engaged in the farming of NTFPs such as beekeeping, mushroom
production, grass-cutter farming and snail rearing. The cultivation of medicinal plants was
also identified as an effective climate change adaptation strategy. These products contribute
substantially to improve nutrition and household food security.

12. Collaborative forest management
Another important adaptation strategy introduced by the government to minimize the
impacts of climate change and improve livelihoods in the communities is Collaborative
forest management (CFM). Until recently, local communities who have direct contact with
forests and depend on them for their livelihoods were not involved in their management.
Consequently, most local communities were not interested in taking measures to ensure a
sustainable management of forest ecosystem. In recent years, the government has realized
that climate change adaptation strategies that are based on the principles of sustainable
forest management are likely to effectively promote an active participation of local
communities in the conservation of environmental resources and improve their livelihoods.
CFM currently being practiced in forest fringe communities is the improved “Taungya
System” in which farmers are given parcels of degraded forest reserves to produce food crops
and to help establish and maintain timber trees.
The objective is to produce a mature crop of commercial timber species in a relatively
short time, address the shortage of farmland and poor soils in communities bordering the
reserve and mitigate and/or reduce climate change impacts. The benefits of this approach
are enormous. For example, food crops such as plantain, cocoyam and vegetables, are inter-
planted with specific tree species. The food crops are normally cultivated for three years, after
which the shade from the trees impeded further cultivation of the crops.
In the improved taungya system, farmers are essentially the owners of forest plantation products,
with the Forestry Commission, landowners and forest-adjacent communities as shareholders.
They are eligible for 25% share of the benefits accruing from the plantation. The system ensures
a continuous flow of benefits to participating farmers after the harvest of food crops at the end of

13. the third year and a bulk payment at the time of harvesting of logs. This approach to forest
management has provided sufficient security for farmers to invest in sustainable tree plantations
CONCLUSION
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the
livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate
change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR
have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their
high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts.
Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water
resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor
livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have
adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water
resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services,
adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is
important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

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