This dissertation by Howard Wright analyzes the use of Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) in retaining African American male students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). The dissertation consists of an introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis of data, and summary/conclusions. It explores the low graduation rates of African American male students at HBCUs compared to their female counterparts and the need for effective retention strategies. CQI is presented as a management approach that can help institutions engage leadership, establish operational procedures, and make data-driven decisions to improve retention. The study examines how academic support directors at HBCUs apply CQI methods and whether there are differences between two-year, four-year public

1. An Analysis of the Use of Continuous Quality Improvement in the Retention of
African American Males at Historically Black Colleges
and Universities
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the degree of
Doctorate of Education
Graduate Research Series No.___________
Howard G. Wright
December 2008

2. ii
An Analysis of the Use of Continuous Quality Improvement in the Retention of
African American Males at Historically Black Colleges
and Universities
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the degree of
Doctorate of Education
Howard G. Wright
December 2008

3. iii
Copyrighted © 2008
by
Howard Wright
All rights reserved

4. iv
To the Graduate School:
We are submitting a dissertation by Howard G. Wright entitled “An Analysis of
the Use of Continuous Quality Improvement in the Retention of African American Males
at Historically Black Colleges and Universities”. We recommend that it be accepted in
partial fulfillment of the degree, Doctorate of Education in Education Administration and
Supervision.
Denise Dunbar .
Chairperson
Christon Arthur .
Committee Member
Janet Finch .
Committee Member
Mark Hunter .
Committee Member
Accepted for the Graduate School:
Alex Skewat .
Dean of the Graduate School

5. v
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the individuals who have assisted me in making
this dream possible. I am most grateful to my grandmother Vashti James for her
unwavering love throughout my early life and her commitment to ensuring that I value
the importance of education during my developmental years.

6. vi
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
I sincerely thank my committee members Dr. Denise Dunbar Chairman, Dr
Christon Arthur, Dr. Janet Finch, and Dr. Mark Hunter for their guidance throughout the
dissertation process. I thank Dr. Phillip Redrick, my former academic advisor at Alabama
A & M University, for directing my passion for higher education research to focus on the
plight of African American males in higher education. I am grateful to Dr. Leatha
Bennett, Mrs. Janet Jones, and my colleagues at The Office of Retention and Academic
Support at Alabama A & M University for their support and encouragement. I thank Dr.
Kathrynn Seidler Engberg for her commitment to edit the manuscript. I also thank my life
long friends of the Class of 88 (The Ratoons) of The College of Agriculture in Port
Antonio Jamaica for their continued encouragement. I am grateful to the friends I met as
an international student at Florida A & M University, who encouraged and supported me
even when I came very close to becoming a college dropout.
I thank my wife, Andrea, for her understanding, love, support, and encouragement
throughout the dissertation process. Without her, I would have not started this journey.
To my children, Andre, Rojae, and Georgiana, I thank you all for your patience and
support, and for the time you gave me to work undisturbed. Finally, I am eternally
grateful to God for taking me from a humble beginning and providing the resources and
drive to complete this journey.

7. vii
ABSTRACT
HOWARD WRIGHT. An Analysis of the Use of Continuous Quality Improvement in the
Retention of African American Male Students at Historically Black Colleges and
Universities (under the direction of DR. DENISE DUNBAR.)
This study explores the use of Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) in the
retention of African American male students, at historically black colleges and
universities (HBCUs). Based on current literature, African American male students at
HBCUs are faced with academic and non-academic factors which affect their retention
and subsequent graduation. CQI is a management system available to Academic Support
Directors which promotes engaging leadership, establishing and defining the modes of
operation, and making data driven decisions.
The purpose of the study was to focus on the application of Continuous Quality
Improvement by Academic Support Directors when integrating retention strategies for
African American male students at two-year, four-year public, and four-year private
HBCUs. To complete this study, a quantitative web-based instrument was sent to 99
Academic Support directors at 99 HBCUs that serve male undergraduate populations.
The instrument consisted of 78 Likert-like scale and two open-ended questions. The
return rate was 55.4% (57).
The responses were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and
T-test. The null hypothesis tested at a 0.05 level of significance. The results from the
hypotheses revealed no statistically significant differences between the various colleges

8. viii
and (a) retention policies and practices, (b) the years practicing CQI, (c) the benefits
achieved, (d) the obstacles faced, (e) the use of data in decision making, (f) the extent of
senior leadership support, and (g) the provision of leadership support for CQI. There
were also no statistically significant differences between the practice of CQI and the use
of data in decision making, as well as the perception of senior leadership support for CQI
and the time practicing CQI.
A summary of the open ended questions revealed that CQI was discussed and
implemented at the various HBCUs, but required a lot of time and departmental
cooperation. The findings indicate that CQI is practiced by Academic Support Directors
at HBCUs, and the issues faced in applying CQI to the retention management of African
American male students are similar among two-year, four-year public, and four- year
private HBCUs. It is recommended that further research be conducted (a) on the use of
CQI in African American male student retention at predominately white institutions, (b)
examine which CQI model has the most impact on African American male retention, (c)
the financial impact of CQI in retention management, (d) the success of non-
implementers of CQI, and (e) leadership support of CQI in African American male
student retention.

9. ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………… 1
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………....7
Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………9
The Significance of the Study………………………………………10
Research Questions…………………………………………………10
Limitations of the Study…………………………………………….12
Assumptions of the Study………………………………………….. 12
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………13
II LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………...17
The Continuous Quality Management Philosophy………………….17
The Continuous Quality Organization………………………………19
The African American Male Student ……………………………….22
Drivers of Continuous Improvement in Higher Education..........…..27
Strategies for Student Retention………………………..…………..30
Data and Assessment………………………………………………..44
The Role of Institutional Management……………………………..46
Continuous Quality Improvement in Higher Education…………….48
Leadership in Continuous Quality Improvement……………………51

10. x
CHAPTER Page
Quality Improvement Methods Used in Higher Education………....54
Summary of the Literature…………………………………………. 62
III METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………65
Research Design…………………………………………………….65
Participants………………………………………………………….66
Research Instrument…………………………………………….......67
Data Collection Procedures…………………………………………70
Data Analysis……………………………………………………….71
Hypotheses………………………………………………………….72
IV ANALYSIS OF DATA…………………………………………………..74
Results of Research Questions…………………………………………...76
Results of Hypotheses Testing…………………………………………...85
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS……….…..101
Summary of the Findings………………………………………………..102
Discussion of the Findings………………………………………………106
Conclusion………………………………………………………………111
Recommendations for Further Research…….………………………….113
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………115

11. xi
APPENDICES
A. First Letter of Solicitation…………………………………………..141
B. Second Letter of Solicitation………………………………………..144
C. Final Letter of Solicitation…………………………………………..146
. D. Permission to Use Survey ……………………………………….....148
E. Survey Instrument…………………………………………………..150
F. Panel of Experts…………………...………………………………...163
G. Institutional Review Board Application……………………………166
H. Open Ended Responses…………………………………………….168
I. Four Year Class Average 1999-2000 Cohort………………………...171

12. xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Pages
1. Results of Cronbach’s Analysis………………………………………..69
2. Results of Response by College Size………………………………….75
3. Results of Colleges by Classification…………………………………75
4. The Effectiveness of Retention Program Meeting
the needs of African American Male Students……………………….77
5. Results of CQI Methods Practiced by Retention Directors…..………79
6. Factors Driving the Support for CQI in Retention
Management for African American Males……………………………80
7. Obstacles Faced in Implementing
CQI in Retention Management………………………………………..82
8. Factors Driving Non Implementers from Supporting
CQI in Retention Management for African American Male Students…83
9. Benefits Derived from Implementing CQI in
Retention Management for African American Male Students……….84
10. ANOVA Results of Significant Differences Between
Program Policies and Practices for African American Male
Students and the Various Colleges.…………………………. …...….85
11. ANOVA Results for Significant Differences Between Years
of Practice and the Various Colleges ………………………………... 87
12. ANOVA Results of Benefits Achieved from Implementing CQI in
Retention of African American Males Among the Various
Colleges …..……………………………………………………………88

13. xiii
Table
Pages
13. ANOVA Results of the Differences in Obstacles
Faced Implementing CQI and the Various College..……………….....90
14. T-test Comparing Practitioners and Non Practitioners
in the use of Data in Decision Making for African American
Male Student Retention………………………………………………92
15. ANOVA Results for Differences in the Use of Data
for Decision Making and the Various Colleges……………………….93
16. ANOVA Results for the Differences between the
Extent of Senior Administrative Support and the Various Colleges….94
17. ANOVA Results for the Differences in the Perception
of Senior Leadership Support for CQI and the
Time Practicing CQI…………………………………………………...96
18. ANOVA Results Comparing the Differences Between
The Provision of Leadership in Campus Retention and
The Various Colleges ………………………………………….……...98
19. ANOVA Results Comparing the Differences Between
the Provision of Leadership in Campus Retention
Initiatives and the Years Practicing CQI…………………………….99

14. CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
There is a great demand for institutions to monitor students’ progress through
their college experience and apply strategies to improve their successful matriculation
(Dey & Hurtado, 2005). A student's decision to leave an institution is very complex and
involves several factors that must be managed effectively during the student's academic
career (Bean, 1980; Tinto, 1993; Nora & Cabrera, 1996). For African American males at
historically black colleges, the stakes are much higher, because more than two thirds
leave without obtaining a degree from the same institution (NCES, 2003). The African
American male student’s plight is a serious concern that requires evaluation of the
strategies used by the institutions and solutions found that will enable the majority of
African American male students to graduate within five to six years (Pascarella, 1985).
In a report on first time bachelor degree seeking students enrolled in 1996, who
graduated from the same HBCU institution by August 2002, the graduation rates for
black females by year four was 23%, in comparison to 14% for black males. In year five,
the graduation rates for black females was 38% in comparison to 28% for black males. In
year six the graduation rate was 44% compared to 34% respectively. Comparatively, the
six-year graduation rate for white males was 56% (NCES, 2003).

15. 2
The retention rate for any group of students is a performance indicator that allows
institutions to demonstrate quality, satisfy the stakeholders’ need for improvement and
accountability, and enhances the institutional capability in making informed decisions on
policies, programs and personnel (Bogue, 1998). A low retention rate for any institution
is damaging. A low rate is an indication of the ineffectiveness of an institution in
managing the progress of its students to graduate within the time indicated. It has
negative implications for the students who drop out. The institution's reputation is
compromised, and revenues that could be generated for academic and student services are
lost (Leveille, 2006; Tinto, 1993). According to Swail et. al (2004), when an institution
loses a student it reduces its income over the years. The institution also loses revenue
from bookstores, residential halls, financial aid, campus restaurants, and potentially lost
alumni contributions (Swail et. al, 2004).
Mustiful (1995) found that for improvements to occur in retention, all areas of
the campus community including financial aid, faculty and peer support, campus activity
and mentors at the institution must work together to improve the student experience,
because individually they impact all students' persistence. Students who departed from
historically black colleges, however, spoke about the disorganization on the campuses,
financial aid issues, problems with bureaucratic red tape and poor customer service which
impacted their departure (Hurd, 2000).
Over the years many HBCU administrators failed to look at the financial and
social implications that retention has on their institutions (Hurd, 2000).This has created a
general public consensus that black males on campuses have difficulty becoming socially

16. 3
integrated, but very little is done to better manage their academic careers to improve their
participation and degree completion (Davis, 1999; Cuyjet, 2006).
A report from the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (2004) found that
institutions lose 20 % of its students in the first year, 11 % in the second year and 9 % in
the third year. A similar study by the ACT (2005) on retention transitioning from
freshman to sophomore from 1983 to 2005 showed that the national rate for two-year
private colleges was 62%, in comparison to 52% for two-year public institutions. The
retention rate was 66.4% for public baccalaureate institutions, in comparison to 70% for
private baccalaureate institutions. For public doctoral institutions, the retention rate was
77%, compared to 82.1% for private doctoral institutions. Nationally for all institutions,
the retention rate was 68.2% (ACT, 2005).
Retention projects have been established at most historically black colleges and
universities by making retention a major part of their institutional mission. Many
HBCUs, with the support of federal and state agencies, have established institutional
strategies such as academic support services, remediation, counseling and retention
centers, career services, emergency loans and merit based scholarships, private and
corporate donations, along with Title IV initiatives such as Summer Bridge and Trio
programs. Each program plays a significant role in improving retention (Chenoweth,
1999; Jones-Giles, 2004). The programs are aimed at developing academic skills through
remediation, social skills development, and providing financial assistance (Chenoweth,
1999). The student reported benefits from these programs are improved grades, enhanced
sense of self-worth, as well as the ability to persevere in school (Marshall, 2005).

17. 4
Efforts to address the general needs of black students do not specifically address
the needs of African American men within the campus structure. Academic support and
retention services should be designed to address the socio-economic problems faced by
black male students as they maneuver the obstacles they encounter on campuses (Cuyjet,
1997). According to Fortson (1997), many programs have not increased the retention
rates significantly, because they do not demonstrate their effectiveness in addressing the
factors that will increase the retention of African American male students. According to
Nittie et al. (1994), the fade out effect has trapped many institutions into a cycle in which
students participate in programs, but as they improve and move out of the programs, the
gains are lost.
The National Association of Land Grant Colleges and Universities’ (NASULGC)
report (2001) on the future of state land grant universities found that the public was
growing frustrated with institutional unresponsiveness. Despite the resources available,
public institutions are perceived as unorganized, unable to improve their internal
problems efficiently and effectively. Boyd (2002) and Muraskin & Lee (2004) argued
that negative perceptions are fueled by increases in tuition, increases in student
indebtedness, demands for more financial aid, reductions of educational opportunity for
low income students, financial crises at the state and local government, allegations of
financial and academic wrong doing at institutions, students’ performance, reductions of
state appropriations to higher education, and finally poor management of tax dollars.
The demand for resources has created an ongoing national and regional discussion
by legislators, the public, higher education policy makers, and members of the African

18. 5
American community, all of which call for accountability and a planned approach to
improve the retention of African American males in higher education. In support of these
discussions, The NASULAGC, (2001) report recommended that land grant institutions
become engaged in improving student experiences, change the campus culture and
organize themselves to respond to the needs of the current and future students.
According to Tinto (2000), institutions should consider more than the overall
graduation rates, but instead examine improvements in retention of the different student
populations (low income, traditional, first generation, non traditional) to see if their
persistence rates have increased with time. Davis (1999) concurred that improvements in
the current retention rates on campuses require a collective effort to nurture the African
American male from his junior year in high school to his senior year in college.
Monitoring a student from the time he/she is accepted by the institution provides the
institution with information to offer the necessary services to accommodate the student’s
needs. The solution also requires the contribution of individuals involved with students to
continuously improve the processes that will sustain the student throughout their
academic career (Cuyjet, 2006).
Prudent retention management requires leaders to become part of the solution.
Successful retention planning involves setting the stage for student retention, establishing
priorities, integrating retention goals with existing programs and services, evaluating
retention outcomes, preparing realistic timelines, along with recognizing and celebrating
student successes (Law, 1999).

19. 6
Seymour (1993) argued that for an institution to solve any of its problems there
must be an understanding of the issues, then it must work continuously to improve the
processes that caused the problem. Regular assessment of the efficiency of institutional
activities creates a foundation that allows groups to respond to changing demands of the
students’ needs with a planned approach (Kaye & Anderson, 1999; Chamblis, 2003).
Regular assessment creates a culture of evidence that allows the institution to constantly
gain information about itself, use the information to continually improve its management
processes that will satisfy students’ needs (Leveille, 2006).
According to Dew (2006), continuous quality improvement models assist
institutions in examining their work systems and performance indicators. The models
engage leadership, define strategic and operational planning, create measures and
assessment, and evaluate work processes. Several CQI models have been used in higher
education to create operational improvements to non-academic departments. The most
notable are Baldrige Criteria for Education Excellence and Balance Scorecard (Rice &
Taylor, 2003), Benchmarking (Thalner, 2005), Quality Planning (Zhiming, 1999) and
Strategic Planning (Low, 1999).
Continuous Quality Improvement does not have to be an institutional initiative,
but non-academic departments such as retention can use it as an effective tool to make
small improvements (Chambliss, 2003). Institutions can also create receptive employees
to quality models (Fritz, 1999), and can use CQI as a launching pad for campus wide
quality initiatives (Dew & Nering, 2003).

20. 7
Deming (1986) suggests that it is the responsibility of the manager in the quality
environment to eliminate obstacles that will prevent optimal performance, because
problems that occur are due to system failure rather than unmotivated employees. The
CQI process allows managers to focus on improving the college experience by
strengthening integration, student involvement and commitment, and utilizing a planned
approach to problem solving (Chamblis, 2003). Continuous Quality Improvement allows
departments to respond to the changing demands of student needs and services creating a
foundation to respond to the challenges faced in the educational environment (Chamblis,
2003).
Improvement in student services can only occur if there is an examination of all
the different processes involved in CQI and by bringing together all the various
stakeholders together. CQI creates cross-functional teams that manage key processes,
maximize operational effectiveness, and enhance customer satisfaction (Lewis & Smith,
1993; Burril & Ledolter, 1999). Continuous Quality Improvement emphasizes service,
implements teamwork, institutes divisions of management, solves problems based on
facts, utilizes statistical methods, and develops human capital (Lewis & Smith, 1994).
Statement of the Problem
While there are steady increases in the female population at HBCUs, the male
population continues to decline steadily. The number of African American men enrolled
at HBCUs continued to decline from 90,130 (40%) in 1995 to 85,628 in 2004, making up
(39%) of the HBCU population (United Negro College Fund [UNCF], 2006). The
National Collegiate Athletic Association’s (NCAA) (2007) graduation report for the

21. 8
1999-2000 cohorts showed graduation rates for African American men at a low of 9% at
the University District of Columbia, 13 % at Texas Southern University, and 14% at
Alabama State respectively. In contrast to a high of 60 % at Miles College, 55% at
Morehouse College, 52% at Fisk, and 46% at Elizabeth State University respectively
(Appendix H).
The current African American male students’ graduation rates reflect the high
levels of attrition for African American rates at HBCUs. In general, leadership by
academic support directors for retention initiatives is critical when developing an
integrated approach that will continuously improve the retention process, improve
departmental operational efficiencies, and ultimately improve the graduation rates for
African American males. Improving the current system requires improvements not only
in the individual units, but also departments that contribute to African American male
student retention (Seymour, 1997). The utilization of management initiatives such as CQI
by college directors helps non-academic departments such as student retention services,
to develop an integrated structured approach to continuously improve their systems
(Chamblis, 2004).
Despite the proliferation of several quality initiatives over the past two decades,
there is no published research on the use of continuous quality management models to
improve the factors that impact the retention of African American male students from
pre-college to graduation at HBCUs. The low graduation rates at HBCUs has created the
need to ask: To what extent are Continuous Quality Improvement methods used by
Academic Support Directors at historically black colleges and universities to address the

22. 9
retention of African American undergraduate male students working? This study is
therefore designed to examine the extent to which Continuous Quality Improvement
methods are used by Academic Support Directors at HBCUs to address the retention of
African American male students.
The Purpose of the Study
The discussions relating to African American male student retention at
historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) are more relevant, because of the
uniqueness of their mission in providing educational opportunities for all students
(Wilson, 2000). According to Wilson (2000), HBCUs open enrollment policy attracts
students with academic deficiencies, low ACT scores and requires some level of
remediation to be academically successful. Once the institution accepts these students,
their retention becomes an important part of HBCUs accountability. Historically black
colleges and universities, like any other institution, must clearly monitor the progress of
enrolled students they enroll and make an effort to improve their college experience (Dey
& Hurtado, 2005).
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the extent of the use of
Continuous Quality Improvement among Academic Support Directors in integrating
retention strategies for African American male students at two-year HBCUs, four-year
public, and four-year private HBCUs. The study evaluated the level of awareness and
implementation of quality improvement practices among Academic Support Directors at
various HBCUs. The study sought to identify the impact of institutional policies and
practices on the retention of African American male students, as well as examining the

23. 10
level of awareness and practice of continuous quality improvement practices among
academic support directors at HBCUs. The study also examined the perception of the
impact of Continuous Quality Improvement strategies on the retention management of
African American males and the role of leadership in the practice of CQI in retention
management.
The Significance the Study
Woodard, Mallory & De Luca (2001) concurred that institutions must examine
their characteristics, culture, academic best practices, student services, and how they
affect their ability to graduate their students. According to the College Board (1999),
college officials should promote the use of strategies for minority student issues, take the
lead in developing these strategies, and get members of the school community involved.
This study is important because it provides information on the continuous quality
framework used by two-year, private and four-year public HBCUs to improve the
African American male college student experience. The study is also significant because
it brings to the forefront effective management strategies utilized by HBCUs to improve
the factors that impact African American male students’ engagement and participation. It
is the intention of this research to fill the void for a study on Continuous Quality
Improvement practices among academic support directors in dealing with the issues faced
by African American males at both private and public historically black colleges.
Research Questions
Referring to the statement of the problem and the significance of the study the
following research questions form the basis of this study:

24. 11
1. What percentage of HBCUs have a center designated for student retention?
2. What percentage of HBCUs have support services designed to target traditional
and non-traditional African American male student populations?
3. How effective are the current retention programs and policies in meeting the
needs of African American male students at historically black colleges and
universities (i.e. student preparedness, faculty, mentors and role models,
academic advising, financial aid, campus environment and services and
socialization and integration)?
4. To what extent are Academic Support Directors aware of and adopting quality
improvement models to their department?
5. What Continuous Quality Improvement models are used, if any, to manage
retention outcomes?
6. What factors are driving academic support directors to continuously improve
the retention of African American male students?
7. What obstacles are encountered by implementers in the application of CQI to
retention practices?
8. What factors contributed to non- implementers not pursuing CQI in retention
practices for African American males?
9. What benefits are gained from the application of Continuous Quality Methods?

25. 12
Limitations of the Study
1. The study will be limited to Historically Black Colleges and Universities with
undergraduate male populations within the United States and U.S Virgin Islands.
2. The study will focus on the management of undergraduate African American
male students only, and will not include graduate level African American males.
3. The study will focus on Academic Support Directors at only historically black
colleges and universities, and not academic support directors at predominately
white institutions.
4. The study will not focus on the retention management of African American
females and other ethnic groups attending HBCUs.
5. The study focuses only on the perceptions of administrators who have
responsibility for academic support and retention at the institutions studied.
6. The study will limit Continuous Quality improvement Strategies to Baldridge
Criteria, Balance Scorecard, Strategic Planning, Process Management and
Benchmarking.
Assumptions of the Study
1. Academic support directors can make decisions relating to the continuous
quality management method used to fulfill the institution’s retention mandate.
2. Continuous quality management strategies that are used by predominately white
institutions are applicable to Historically Black Colleges and Universities.
3. The responses of the Academic Support Directors will be without bias, offering
an accurate description of their individual operations.

26. 13
4. African American males entering HBCUs share similar institutional experiences
with other males at HBCUs that impact their retention.
5. All HBCUs retention rates for African American male students’ needs
improvement.
6. All HBCUs have a department or individual who is responsible for retention.
Definition of Terms
Academic Support Director: Individuals who are responsibility for the day to day.
operational management of the retention program at their respective institutions
African American males: Refers to black men enrolled at historically black colleges and
universities who reside in the United States and its territories.
Assessment: A statistical method of evaluating work functions and processes to provide
diagnostic information to policymakers.
At Risk Students: Students classified as at risk are first generation to attend college,
have low parental income, have low high school cumulative grade point average,
have low ACT scores, have poor high school preparation, have poor social skills,
have financial difficulties, and work more than 40 hours per week.
Attrition: The departure of students before degree completion.
Balance Scorecard: A management system that measures the business strategy
through measurable objectives (Reuben, 1999).
College Type: The classifications of institutions based on whether they are
private four year, public four year and two year institutions.

27. 14
Continuous Quality Improvement: The identification of the customers’ needs and
expectations, compared against established market standards. It utilizes data
collection and analysis to continuously seek improvement in specific services and
process within the organization (Chambliss, 2003).
Customers: Individuals who use the organization products and services.
Drivers: Factors inside and outside of the institution that force institutions to improve
operational efficiencies.
Baldrige Criteria for Educational Excellence: This is the education excellence section of
the Baldrige Quality awards. It integrates a management system through
leadership, strategic planning, student relationship, stakeholders, market data, and
management analysis (Baldrige National Quality Program, 2006).
Benchmarking: The finding of the best practices of a peer organization and examining,
the factors that lead to the organization’s success, and adopting the factors that are
suitable in improving the organizational performance (Dew and Nearing, 2004).
Higher Education: Post secondary institution that confers certificates, diplomas, and
degrees, and includes two year, four-year public, and four year private colleges
and universities.
Historically Black Colleges and Universities: These institutions are “colleges or
universities that were established before 1964 with the primary mission of
educating the African American community and are accredited by a nationally
recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary of
Education to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is,

28. 15
according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward
accreditation." (Higher Education Act, 1965). There are currently 105 established
HBCUs in the United States and the U.S Virgin Island (USDE, 2002).
Institution: Four year or two year private and public college and universities of higher
education.
Intrusive Advising: Proactively seeking out students who are at-risk and providing the
necessary services that will improve the student’s chances of completing their
degree.
Persistence: The student remaining in the institution until the degree attainment.
Quality: Conducting the organization’s operational transaction within the agreed
requirements of the customer (Crosby, 1997).
Quality Improvement: The process by which changes occur in the institution through
transformation (Spandauer, 1992).
Quality management: The design of programs to fit the organization’s current plan
through understanding the processes, planning, designing implementation, and
evaluation of the processes (Burril & Ledolter, 1999).
Retention: The flow of students through the institution within a one to six year period;
and is reflected in the way the student complete their degree requirements or drop
out (Tinto, 1993).
Retention Program: A structured program within an institution designed to provide
services and programs to guide the student from admission to graduation.

29. 16
Various HBCUs: Two year and four year private and public historically black colleges
and universities.
Strategic Planning: A formal process that strategically integrates and aligns the
organization’s short- term and long-term goals to support its mission and
management plans on a year-by year -basis (Thompson & Strickland, 1999).

30. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This section covers an overview of the use of Continuous Quality Improvement in
higher education and the issues that contribute to the retention of African American male
students. The review of the literature is divided into the following sections: the
Continuous Quality Management philosophy, the African American male student in
higher education, the drivers of continuous improvement in higher education, the
strategies for student retention, the data assessment, the continuous quality improvement
strategies in higher education, leadership and finally a summary of the literature.
The Continuous Quality Management Philosophy
Quality methods used in the corporate environment and higher education have
their genesis with Fredrick Taylor’s scientific method (Birnbaum, 2000). Taylor and his
associates postulated that in analyzing the work process and timing, the most efficient
method of completing a task could be determined (Hoy & Miskel, 2005). Taylor
proposed the establishment of work methods and design, the establishment of standards
for daily work, the training of workers, and centralized planning by management.
(Sheldrade, 1996). The advent of Taylorism created the self-directing team concept
allowing employees to become more skilled in the management process, taking on

31. 18
functions that were only designated for management (Brocka and Brocka, 1992). In a
criticism of Taylor’s principle, Evans & Lindsay (2005) argued that it dramatically
improved production efficiencies and quality, but lacked system perspective and focus on
the customer.
Total Quality Management revolutionized management philosophy by placing
emphasis on customer satisfaction, utilizing statistical analysis, and emphasizing human
resource development in the management process (Deming, 1986). According to Evan &
Lindsay (2005), Deming’s philosophy emphasized the need for quality to be driven by
the managers, be based on the continual improvement of products from design to
manufacturing, and a reduction in uncertainty and variation.
To support his philosophy Deming (1986) outlined 14 points on operations in a
quality environment. They included: 1.goal specific improvements, 2. adoption of a new
management philosophy, 3. assessments and inspection, 4. reward for performance, 5.
continuous product improvement, 6. employee training, 7. leadership practices, 8. remove
fear by creating an atmosphere of trust and creativity, 9. encourage teamwork, 10.
management through statistical thinking, 11. process improvement, 12. removal of
barriers to quality improvement, 13. promote employee education, and 14. improve the
culture and climate of the organization.
Crosby’s (1979) 14 steps of quality and Juran’s (1989) 10 steps to quality also share
Deming’s (1986) approach to managing in a quality environment. Crosby (1979)
postulated that proposed improvements should be passed down the organization through
education and dialogue, quality must be done right the first time, and zero defects are the

32. 19
only performance standards. Juran (1989), on the other hand, emphasized that quality
planning, control, and improvements can occur in an organization by designing quality
programs to fit the organization’s current plans.
In comparing the different quality philosophies of Deming (1986), Juran (1989)
and Crosby (1979), Evans and Lindsay (2005), concurred that they all focused on the
commitment of top management to the quality process, incremental continuous
improvement, customer service, teamwork, measurement for problem solving,
recognition and reward, and the problems associated with changing organizational culture
(Evans and Lindsay, 2005).
The Continuous Quality Organization
A continuous quality organization is an organization that creates a climate that
constantly reviews its operations to find areas for continuous improvement (Deming,
1986). It establishes measurable yardsticks which are driven by comparison with other
organizational costs, accountability, performance, and service (Seymour, 1993). A CQI
organization meets the customer’s requirements (Evans & Lindsay, 2005). The CQI
organization should conduct its transactions within the agreed framework by impacting
every area within the organization that contributes to improving the organization’s
reputation and ultimately its revenue intensity (Crosby, 1997). In a summary of quality
definition within higher education, Bogue (1998) argued that quality is a competitive
affair which allows institutions to maintain their competiveness. It should be established
in the organization’s goals and mission, and the result should add value to the
organization (Bogue, 1998).

33. 20
Deming (1986) Plan- Do-Check-Act cycle (PCDA) suggests that incremental
continuous improvement within an organization occurs on a continuum. The process, the
customers, goals, assessment strategy, and the best solution to the problem define the
“planning” phase. The “do” phase consists of making incremental system changes,
followed by the “check” phase which examines the changes to determine if the solution
addresses the issue. The “Act” stage is the implementation of the plan on a larger basis.
Arveson’s (1998) critique of Deming’s PCDA model argued that it focuses on
continuous improvements at the production level, but businesses seek improvement at the
business or unit level to drive the production process. Burrill & Ledolter (1999) in
support of Deming (1986) stated that, “ A single improvement requires selecting the
problem to tackle, determining the cause of the problem, devising a system change to
remove the cause, gain approval to make the change, install and verify that the change is
effective” (p. 67). The micro-level process has its advantages; it improves services for
students and faculty, it improves program visibility, it is cost effective, and it creates
improvement in operational efficiencies in service areas (Dew & Nering, 2004).
To improve student achievement Spanbauer (1992) argued that quality improvement
process is the medium through which cultural change can be exercised in education by
changing how schools are managed. The quality improvement process should involve
students, staff, faulty and other school constituents with each recognizing the others
contribution. These contributions should be challenged through training and commitment
to change (Spanbauer, 1992).

34. 21
Adams (2000) in examining strategies that are used to improve student services at
eight California Community Colleges found that student affairs directors agree that
student services must be improved to be competitive. The study found that leadership
must be committed to the goals and mission of the institution, and must develop
continuous improvement strategies based on students’ needs. The study also found that
improvement in student services requires continuous assessment, surveys, and
questionnaires about student satisfaction and must be given top priority in decisions
making. Adams concluded that these methods create a student-centered environment
where students will participate in services designed for their success.
Quality programs must constantly focus on process improvement with incremental
changes made to improve the process (Burrill & Ledolter, 1999). To understand the
process there must be an understanding of the needs and expectations of the customer.
The process must be examined to ensure that the customer’s needs are met. If
expectations are not met, the process must be redesigned to satisfy the customer’s needs.
The system must be continuously re-evaluated for weaknesses, and then strategies must
be made to correct the faults (Burrill & Ledolter, 1999). The program must be market
lead, focusing on adding value to the customer and must responsive to market forces and
be the basis for setting goals. It must be the foundation for problem solving, rewarding,
performance appraisal, incentive distribution, and resource allocation (Jiju & Preece
2002; Evans & Lindsay, 2000).

35. 22
The African American Male Student in Higher Education
Many college bound African American students are from disadvantaged
backgrounds. They do not have parents who attended college, often lack positive
educational role models, from single parent homes, and are first generation college
students. African American students are more likely to be from lower income families,
have limited financial resources, have problems with finances and the financial aid
system, and feel isolated on campus (Seidman, 2005; Tinto, 1993). They are also less
prepared for college, are faced with more problems in college, and are negatively affected
by increases in college tuition than students of wealthier families (Muraskin, 2004).
According to Tinto (1993), students come from different social and economic
backgrounds, with different personalities, and pre-college preparation levels. Students’
behaviors are modified based on their longitudinal interaction within the college
environment. A negative or positive interaction will influence the student’s commitment
creating marginality or even withdrawal (Tinto, 1993). The student’s academic and social
integration is a psychological process, which is shaped through the student’s past
behaviors, coping abilities, and self-efficacy towards academics (Bean & Eaton, 1995).
According to Davis (1999), “African American males often struggle to socially
integrate in a community of peers who are supportive and is often confining. They
struggle to overcome academic hurdles, created by inadequate college preparation. They
struggle against a school environment that marginalizes their presence and academic
expectations… often their voices are not heard, misunderstood or simply ignored”
(p.135). Neal and McCray et al. (2003) found that African American boys are usually

36. 23
misunderstood from as early as middle school, because teachers tend to perceive African
American culture styles as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to
be in need of special education than those individuals who have normal behavior styles.
Davis (1999) elaborated that there is also the effect of racism, stereotyping,
underachieving in reading and mathematics, low teacher expectations, negative peer
pressure, anti-schooling attitudes, drugs, gangs, the legal systems, and the lack of positive
male influence has greatly influenced black male behavior and educational experience.
Bush & Bush (2005) reported that a review by the California Chancellors office
for community colleges found that African American males are the lowest performing
group in terms of degrees earned, retention rates, and average accumulative grade point
averages. Bush and Bush also reported that African American males are less likely to
meet with their instructors and less likely to participate in extracurricular activities than
any other groups of students.
Cuyjet (1997) found that African American males do not spend much time
reading students newspapers, do not get involved in clubs as much as female students,
and are not very active in student organizations. They often do not exhibit interest in
student organizations and are not highly involved in campus sanctioned activities (Cuyjet,
1997). Harper (2003) concurred that African American male students spent their out of
class time, “In residence hall rooms doing nothing, pursuing romantic endeavors with
women, exercising in the campus fitness center, playing video games, playing basketball
and other sports, trying to become rappers, showing off their material possessions,
partying, hanging out informally with other African American males at designated spots

37. 24
on campus and studying in the library by themselves” (p.74). These needs affect their
college experiences, and have to be addressed collectively and individually for them to
graduate (Pascarella, 1985).
The lingering effects of past experiences are carried over into the college
experience creating behaviors on college campuses that are different from other
demographic groups (Cuyet, 1997). The extent to which the students become involved in
the institutional environment and exploit the opportunities available in the institutional
setting will enhance their persistence (Pascarella, 1985; Weidman 1989; Austin, 1985).
The African American male student population, however, is very diverse and has needs,
which shifts based on age group, socio-economic background and preparation levels
(Pascarella, 1985).
Labunski (2003) argued that educated students, regardless of their background,
must be cognizant of the requirements of their majors, should mix general education
classes with their major, gather information about the major, attend class, and become
involved in group discussions. They should work less than 15 hours per week, attend
class at all times especially before exams, and work on a career path which includes
internships. They must also build relationships with professors, find out and participate in
extracurricular activities, have adequate insurance, complain of sexual harassment when
it occurs and do not drop classes because of the fear of earning average grades.
The Traditional and Non-Traditional African American Student
Stokes (2005) reported that the college population is now made up of a diverse
group of students. The traditional undergraduate students, who are dependent, attend

38. 25
school full-time, and work part-time, has changed dramatically over the past two decades
(NCES, 2002). The traditional age 18-22-year-old undergraduate students make up only
16% of higher education enrollment. Approximately 40 % of students are 25 years or
older and 40% of students studying part-time (NCES, 2002).
Non-traditional students on the other hand have the characteristics of delayed
enrollment, attend school part-time, are independent and work full-time while enrolled.
They have children, are single parents, and may not have received a high school diploma
(NCES, 2002). Traditional and non-traditional students do not exhibit similar retention
patterns at the bachelor’s degree level. However at the associate degree level, non-
traditional students are half as likely to achieve their degrees (NCES, 2002).
Students with non-traditional characteristics are more likely to leave without
obtaining a degree and are a greater risk of dropping out especially in their first year.
Male non-traditional students at an urban commuter college found that competing jobs,
classroom priorities, poor time management, and academic under-preparedness
contributed to the dropout decision (Gary, 2004). Non-traditional students’ energy is
more focused on their employment rather than on school (Conditions of Education
Report, 2002). Non traditional students also fear returning to academics. They struggle to
balance family and school, facing financial difficulties which cannot be remedied by the
financial aid process (Widoff, 2000).
Marshal (2006) found that there are barriers to participation for both traditional
and non-traditional students. Marshal found that traditional students utilize the retention
programs less. Factors contributing to students’ lack of using the services stem from

39. 26
cultural beliefs regarding the stigma associated with seeking help, and excelling is seen as
“acting white”. The study also found institutional factors such as peer tutors lacking
diversity skills, ineffective marketing of services, and the negative connotation associated
with the word retention impacts program utilization. Non-traditional students face similar
issues, but as more mature students they overcome the obstacles.
Marshal (2006) concluded that in order to improve the use of retention services,
the program name and strategies should be changed to reflect the African American
culture. The use of the “Retention Program” is perceived negatively and should be
changed to “Academic Support Programs”. Peer tutors should undergo extensive training,
and universities should establish committees, which should include administrators,
faculty, and students to monitor, evaluate and make recommendations to improve the
Academic Support Program.
The adult-learner is another group of non-traditional students which is a very
diverse group. They are poorly understood, and require specially designed programs to
meet their needs. They need institutional planning and counseling to help map their
success, therefore, institutions need to understand their pattern of enrollment (Pusser et
al., 2007). According to Tinto (1993) adult male students returning to school face
difficulties such as feeling out of place. They are less willing to admit to academic
difficulties, and ask fewer questions when academic help arrives. They balance work and
have family responsibilities impacting their integration and assimilation into the school
community.

40. 27
Spadley (2001) argued that the increase in the number of traditional age black
male students in higher education requires educators to design special programs to
address their needs (Spadley, 2001). Spadley recommended that administrators facilitate
peer intervention to enhance integration. Spadley also recommended that faculty need to
foster a learning environment that encourages participation and nurturing by designing
extracurricular activities that enhance learning and participation.
Drivers of Continuous Improvement in Retention
The survival of private four-year, public-four year, and two-year HBCUs will
depend on the institution’s ability to improve the management of its student services and
find new sources of revenue. Many HBCUs, however, are periodically plagued by
financial problems. They do not have large endowments and depend on student fees, state
appropriations, and philanthropy to survive (Jaynes & Williams, 1989). Losing a high
percentage of male students is a loss of potential revenue.
Reversing the negative male retention trend requires a structured approach that
must be managed for both short term and long term gains in graduation rate. The
competitive educational environment dictates that as service organizations, institutions
must make an effort to be service oriented, creating an image that will impact market
share, student selection, donation dollars, and research funding (Jurow, 2006). The
competition among higher education institutions requires all institutions (including
HBCUs) to become more adaptable and flexible to the changing market. This will attract
the best and brightest students (American Council of Education, 2004). Deming (1993)
suggested that within a competitive economy, customers have more choices than in the

41. 28
past. With this flexibility they become more focused on organizations that meet their
expectations. Leville (2006) concurred that students understand market forces and seek
quality education at competitive pricing.
A United Negro College Fund (2004) study found that 50% of African American
graduating high school seniors and 50% of parents consider HBCUs as the college of
choice, with the percentage rising to 64% with parents with four-year degrees or higher.
Black high school students choose HBCUs based on “word- of- mouth” about HBCUs
from friends and family members. They were more interested in the availability of
extracurricular activities and the schools’ social reputation more than other ethnic groups
(Foley, 1996).
The brightest black students now have more choices and are recruited by the top
predominately white institutions even though historically black colleges and universities
are viable options (UNCF, 2004). Better-prepared students are attracted to institutions
with good academic reputations. If the HBCUs, however, do not improve their academic
reputation, they will not be able to attract the best students (Goenner & Snaith, 2004).
There are also federal concerns for HBCUs to improve their degree completion
rates (USDE, 2006). Federal intervention through the United States Department of
Education program for the promotion of educational excellence for all Americans has
established accountability expectations for HBCUs (USDE, 2006). With federal
assistance, there are demands for historically black colleges and universities (HBCU) to
become more accountable for performance indicators, such as retention (USDE, 2006).

42. 29
Quality objectives established for HBCUs are monitored annually through the
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and measured against long-
term progress up to 2009. Some established targets are to increase persistence beyond
first year enrollment, increase graduation rates, increase in six year graduation
percentages, increase graduation rates for students in engineering, physical and biological
sciences, and improve the efficiency of institutional services to students. These indicators
allow families and students to rank colleges based on expert recommendations from the
Department of Education (NCES, 2002). This increase flow of information will allow
students and parents to make better educated choices when selecting a college (Miller,
2006).
In addition to the federal regulations, Cohen (1999) states that accreditation is
another force affecting institutional conduct. The Secretary of Education Commission on
Higher Education (2006) recommends that accreditation agencies be held accountable for
assuring performance issues, ensure performance questions are answered, and show
consistency and transparency. According to Schray (2006), accreditation agencies must
respond to the demands of the higher education environment, specifically due to the
growing demand for accountability, reduction in funding, rising costs, the increasing need
for efficiency, and expanding distance learning.
The Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS, 2002) issued a
position statement warning institutions that they will be held accountable for programs
and services irrespective of any reduction in funding. SACS in its manual, The Principles
of Accreditation: Foundation of Quality Enhancement, states that they, "Expect

43. 30
institutions to dedicate themselves to enhancing the quality of their programs and services
within the context of their missions, resources, and capacities, be engaged in an ongoing
program of improvement and be able to demonstrate how well it fulfills its stated
mission...document quality and effectiveness in all its major aspects" (SACS, 2006).
Other accreditation agencies such as The Higher Learning Commission of the North
Central Association have asked institutions to implement the Academic Quality
Improvement Process (AQIP). This provides institutions with a quality improvement
approach to accreditation, utilizing self-assessment, strategic planning, and quality
methods (Dew, 2004).
Strategies for Student Retention
Many students’ decision to withdraw from an institution lies in the
communication and interactive networks established between student and university
personnel. If these networks are working successfully, they determine whether a student
leaves or graduates from the institution (Hermonowiz, 2004). Many at risk students fail to
utilize university provided resources. They fail to contact members of the institution
when experiencing difficulties (Boyer 1987; Cuseo, 2003).
In the interest of retention, colleges and universities must take a proactive stance
by contacting at-risk students, offering them specific services, and working closely with
the students to develop their confidence skills and interest in learning (Friedlander, 1980;
Boyer, 1987). Kuh and Associates (2005) argues that student success in an institution can
be increased by establishing performance standards for students, staff and faculty. Also,
institutions must assess and reformulate programs to meet students’ expectations. They

44. 31
should develop early warning systems ensuring that first-year students are assigned
mentors, and have a sustainable advising program that promotes four-year completion.
The institution should reward faculty for performance, create activities that encourage a
climate in which all students will interact with their peers. Programs must address
students’ academic needs, help students cope with studying, and other non-academic
issues. Institutions must promote student relationships with faculty and administrative
staff (Kuh and Associates, 2005).
According to Lotowski et al. (2004) retention is best predicted by combining
social and economic factors, high school GPA and non-economic factors. The findings
from his research suggest that the best approach for designing retention programs is to
move beyond the traditional method of identifying at risk students by GPA alone. The
best strategy involves students with adequate GPAs, who fail to develop social skill and
self confidence.
Similar studies on the academic success of students at an HBCU in Maryland
conducted by Peters (2007) supports the ACT findings. Peters (2007) found that high
school GPA was a stronger in predicting academic success than Scholastic Aptitude Test
Score (SAT). The study found significant differences in graduation rates for students with
low SAT scores and the overall institutional graduation rates. There were also significant
differences between graduation rates, students with low high school GPA and overall
graduation rates. The study also found that females had higher graduation rates for the
cohort studied and students with low SAT scores can persist to graduation, if there is a
strategy of utilizing academic and non-academic intervention tools.

45. 32
Levitz and Noel (2000) argued that the first step in identifying and managing
marginally involved students is to identify the student’s academic motivation, examine
their transition to the institutional environment, and examine the type of help the student
may need to succeed. The second step is to design individual student programs through
proper advising, with trained and knowledgeable advisors. The third step is to deliver a
program that is unique to the individual student’s needs.
Campus Support
Strauss (2004) in a study of the adaptation of students to their environment found
that the strongest impact on institutional commitment derives from student experiences.
The study suggested that it is the collective balance of students’ academic and social
experiences that exert heavy influence on their commitment to the institution and is more
important than all variables.
Positive experiences from post-college and pre-college variables prevent
freshmen from becoming involved in many negative psychosocial activities (DeBerad et
al., 2004). According to DeBerad et al. (2004), universities have to look at the
psychosocial predictors of freshmen academic achievement and retention. They must
examine psychological variables such as smoking, drinking, health, social support, and
maladaptive coping strategies, because they are related to retention. Colleges must be
proactive in identifying potential at-risk students during their freshman year and provide
the necessary corrective and intervention strategies (DeBerad et al., 2004).
In contrast, Alderman (2004) argues that student performance comes from effort
and ability, which is influenced by motivation, the expectations for future performance,

46. 33
and subsequent actions taken by the student. Burton et al. (2006) argues that the student’s
success in school occurs when they make a deliberate effort to participate in the learning
process such as studying, doing homework, and completing work assignments. If the
students are experiencing difficulties, they must make an attempt to seek help (Burton et
al., 2006).
Persistence through graduation is related positively to voluntarily seeking help
(Shwitzer, 1993) As voluntary use of counseling increases, the academic performance of
second year at risk students who participated in brief mandatory counseling improved
dramatically (Shwitzer, 1993). Therefore, academic advising and support services at
HBCUs, should be implemented early in a student’s career. This will create the avenue
for students at risk to be identified early so that measures can be taken to enhance the
students’ academic and social integration (McDaniel & Graham, 2001).
In a study of how student services such as enrollment management, financial aid
service, residential life, extracurricular activities, counseling services and academic
support services impact freshmen at two private HBCU’s, Hutto & Fenwick (2002) found
a significant statistical relationship between the students’ perception of the quality of
services available to them and their retention. Hutto & Fenwick concluded that privately
funded institutions could correct their retention issues by coming to terms with the issues
with their services, and strengthen the quality of the student services they provide.
Programs with cognitive approaches such as mentoring, tutoring, academic
enrichment, group study sessions and increased communication enhances persistence
(Peters, 2005). Non-cognitive factors such as time management, advising, social support,

47. 34
team building, and leadership skills also impact persistence. Leadership and character
development activities showed the best promise as a strategy for improving African
American male retention (Peters, 2005).
In Tinto’s (1993) reflection on the principles of effective retention, he argued that
successful retention programs should be committed to the students they serve. They must
be committed to becoming student centered and must engage staff, faculty and students to
ensure that the students become involved in the institution and have the skills necessary
to survive the academic vigor. Tinto (1993) states that the institution must commit itself
to develop support services and learning communities, so that the students can become
fully integrated into the fabric of institution.
This observation was supported by Mustiful (2005) in a study of African
American male persistence at four-year private and public HBCUs. Mistiful (2005) found
that African American males persist because of individuals such as parents and
grandparents who provided financial and emotional support. The study also found that
high school personnel and institutional factors such as financial aid, support faculty of
and peers, involvement in campus activities and mentors at the institution all contribute to
African American male persistence.
Flowers (2006) in a study on the effects of attending a two year versus a four year
institution on African American males’ academic and social integration during the first
year, found that African American males attending four year colleges are more likely to
report higher levels of academic and social integration than their two year counterparts.

48. 35
Flowers (2006) concluded that two year institutions should make more effort to develop
strategies to improve African American males’ academic and social integration.
A nurturing college environment is a primary expectation of African American
students, and there must be a fit between the college environment and African American
students’ expectations (Key, 2003). Key also found that there must be a fit between the
student’s expectations and that of the institution when establishing a quality-nurturing
environment to improve graduation rates. Similar sentiments are shared by Tinto (2000)
who argued that students’ goals must be aligned with the institution, and there must
sufficient interaction for the student to feel that their goals are in unison with the
institution.
In an ACT study on what works in retention for four-year private colleges, by
Habley and McClanahan (2004) found that 64.1 % of the institution studied had an
individual who coordinated retention, 59.4% had retention improvement goals from first
to second year, and 38.7% had goals to improve retention to degree completion. The
respondents linked attrition to student characteristics mainly, inadequate financial
resources, lack of motivation, lack of coping skill, and lack of educational goals. The
retention programs that were found to have the greatest contribution to retention were
first year programs, academic advising, and learning support. The retention programs that
had the greatest impact were freshman seminars, advising with selected student groups
and internships respectively. Habley and McClanahan (2004) also found that private four
year institutions that have high retention and graduation rates practiced integrating
academic advising with first year programs, had an academic advising center, faculty

49. 36
mentoring, summer bridge programs, honors programs, increased advising staff, learning
communities, had peer mentoring and writing labs, and had non credited extended writing
labs.
Campus Services
Jones-Giles (2004) in a study of retention at HBCUs found other factors that were
negatively associated with student retention at HBCUs. The factors included academic
boredom and uncertainty of what to study, transition and adjustment problems, unrealistic
expectations of college, lack of satisfactory academic advising, and competitive college
entrance scores. In addition, there were college retention programs, unexpected high
workload in freshman college courses, and academic under preparedness. Jones-Giles
(2004) also found that a lack of competitive high school backgrounds, parental
involvement, personal and emotional factors, financial problems and a lack of self-
confidence and self esteem impacts retention (Jones-Giles, 2004).
Advising, tutoring, mentoring, counseling, remedial courses, schedule adjustment
and financial aid respectively, are considered the most effective strategies for correcting
many of the issues faced by African American students (Harleston, 2004). A similar
study by Jones-Giles (2004) found that the most effective polices in improving retention
at HBCUs were screening potential dropouts for prevention and intervention, providing
academic counseling to potential dropouts, and implementing student and faculty
feedback to identify students who are likely to withdraw. Jones-Giles also found that
establishing policies at the departmental level to handle retention issues and using

50. 37
information from exit interviews to identify factors that impact the student withdrawal
improves student retention.
Glen (2004) in an analysis of factors that contribute to Texas community colleges,
graduating black males found that institutions in the top quartile had specific strategies
for retention success. Glen found that the best strategies include freshman only advising,
offering credits for orientation courses, and tutorial programs, and monitoring at risk
groups with specific retention plans. The study also found that the strategies that had the
greatest impact on African American male retention were identifying at-risk students
from the time of enrollment, and monitoring their academic performance. According to
Tinto (2000), for institutional retention programs to impact the sophomore, junior and
senior years, a learning community approach must be utilized. This creates a program
that has continued success throughout the students' academic career.
Faculty
African American students persist due to experiences and interactions that occur
in the school environment (Latiker, 2003). Frequent daily interactions with students in
and out of the classroom impact the student’s decision to stay or leave school (Tinto,
1993; Chenoweth 1999). At risk students who persist cite someone on the faculty who
has made positive contact with them outside of the classroom (Tinto, 1997).
In a study by Schaeffer et al. (2003), both students and faculty were asked to rank
the 10 qualities of effective teachers. The qualities are: (1) approachability, (2) creativity
and interesting, (3) flexibility and open mindedness, (4) knowledgeable, (5) realistic
expectations, (6) fairness, and (7) respectful, were all traits identified as the top seven.

51. 38
The major difference between teacher and students responses were that faculty placed
more emphasis on teaching techniques, while students placed more emphasis on the
student teacher relationship.
Students felt it was important to have someone who is engaged in their learning
experience, care about their future, and have a vested interest in their education,
irrespective of race (Henderson, Henderson & Hudson, 2002). Hickson (2002) in his
study at an HBCU found that students did not care about the race of the faculty member
as long as the following attributes are met: the faculty member cared about their future,
had an interest in their education, cared about their aspirations, and cared about their
goals outside of the classroom.
Thomas and Giles (1994) argued that faculty should be convinced that retention is
important and that the problems associated with student retention are a part of the
experience. Efforts must be organized to assists faculty and students in understanding
how to receive and take advantage of the available assistance (Thomas, & Gile, 1994).
Spardely (2001) argued that faculty must be challenged to be not only facilitators of
learning, but be able to accommodate the problems and experiences of African American
males. According to Padilla (2000), the perception of the extent that a program shares in
the institutional mission is an important component in faculty participation in any
program to succeed. Faculty who buy into the institutional mission reported greater
satisfaction than those who consider the mission irrelevant (Padilla, 2000).
According to Pascarella and Terenzini (1991), institutional climate can influence
faculty members if the activities have some rewards. Pascarella and Terenzini stated that

52. 39
faculty cannot be expected to be involved in out-of-class student activities if they are
recruited for research and their research brings them more prominence than involvement
with undergraduate students (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Incentives should be offered
to faculty and staff to participate in the process, and programs developed with faculty
input. This creates a level of openness, so that views from various areas of institutional
life are heard (Tinto, 1993).
Academic Advising
According to Cuseo (2003), academic advisors are in an ideal position to connect
with students rather than academic support personnel. Johnson (1997) stated that it is the
people who come face- to-face with students on a regular basis provide the positive
growth experiences for students. They enable students to identify their strengths and learn
how to use them. Academic advising is the only structured activity on campuses where
students have the opportunity to have one-on-one interaction with a concerned
representative of the institution (Tinto, 1993). Thus, academic advising is one of the
major social and academic factors that determine whether a student leaves or stays (Tinto,
1993).
Wyckoff (1999) concurs that one of the key factors that contribute to poor
advising is lack of consensus about the role and function of the advisors. Johnson (1997)
stated that advising is not an isolated process; retention efforts must be focused on all
components of the university. Johnson (1997) postulates that colleges and universities
must build an effective and strong connection between advising programs and the various
components on campus. Credle and Dean (1991) concluded that when the students enter

53. 40
college, the advisor, staff, and faculty must establish rapport with them, by helping them
work within the organizational structure, and assist with careers development.
Furr and Elling (2002) stated that faculty members must have information about
the student. If they know the student information, they can develop profiles to help
students monitor and balance their various activities. They can interact on the student’s
behalf with financial aid, provide information for counselors, residential hall advisors,
and other faculty members before the student’s problems become insurmountable.
Graunke and Woosley (2005), in a study examining how sophomore experiences
and attitudes affect their experiences, found that commitment to academic major and
faculty interactions were significant predators of grade point average. Graunke &
Woosley found that in order to improve sophomore academic performance, institutions
should focus on helping sophomores declare their majors early, design student activities
to promote involvement, which in turn will improve the student’s interactions with
faculty (Graunke & Woosley, 2005). Focusing advising and academic services along with
providing information early in the college experience will help enhance the student’s
academic and social integration (McCaha & Fitzpatrick, 2005).
When comparing student satisfaction with academic advising, Lowe (2000) found
that the frequency of contact with faculty greatly predicts students’ satisfaction. Lowe
indicated that academic advising varies greatly across colleges, between student groups,
and there are differences in the perception of advising based on the student status. In
order to bring about a more effective advising system, Lowe & Michael (2000)
recommends that advising should be recognized as a high priority activity, should be

54. 41
intrusive, and advisors should be trained. Advising responsibilities must be defined,
materials must be improved and made more widely available. There must be
accountability, evaluations must be conducted and reward measures instituted.
Mentors and Role Models
Successful teachers of African American males have commonly helped students
develop an attachment for learning by dealing with student concerns, and have gained
their students respect (Ross, 1998). Ross (1998) found that African American males
graduate because of nurturing by a significant person, and by bonding to a person who
provides a strong sense of direction, guidance and responsibility. This person may be
someone from church, family, or the institution the student attends who is caring to the
student.
Mentoring is a valuable structured tool that is used to promote interaction between
African American men and faculty (LaVant, Tiggs, & Anderson, 1997). From their
observation of mentoring programs in higher education institutions throughout the
country, LaVant, Tiggs, & Anderson (1997) recommends that successful mentoring
programs for African American men should have a commitment of the institution’s
executive leadership to have a formal mentoring program. A university committee should
be established to identify African American males for mentorship upon admission.
Mentors who are passionate should be selected, and there must be coordination between
the mentoring program and enrollment management to identify potential participants.
Training should be provided for faculty, and the program must engage the university’s
external partners. There must be an ongoing unbiased analysis and evaluation of the

55. 42
program. Recommendations from the evaluations must be implemented to improve the
programs’ effectiveness (LaVant, Tiggs & Anderson, 1997).
Financial Aid
Receiving assistance with financial aid increases the odds of departure by 89%
(Ishitani & Snider, 2004). Financial aid does have a positive effect on first-year and
fourth-year retention (Ishitani, 2006), but the attrition rate varies based on the amount,
timing and composition of the loan (Ishitani & DesJardins, 2003). The percentage of
money burrowed for higher education is highest for students who attend private
institutions while those students that attend two-year colleges are less likely to borrow.
More than 20% of those who borrow drop out and are faced with the life long financial
difficulties (Gladieux & Perna, 2005).
According to Mihok (2005), the composition of financial aid packages are related
to the persistence of first generation, low- income sophomore students. Low- income
students who receive need based loans at the beginning of their enrollment are not as
likely to persist as those who received aid in the latter years of college. Increasing the
funding or frontloading grants in earlier years increases the likelihood of students
persisting to the third, fourth, and fifth years. This is because most students tend to drop
out in the first two years due to the fear of debt accumulation (Mihok, 2005).
Allgood (2005) in a study of financial aid knowledge of students at HBCUs found
that students knew that they needed financial aid to persist. They had minimal knowledge
of the financial aid process and were late planners even though they completed the
application themselves. Allgood (2005) also found that the level of financial aid

56. 43
knowledge increased based on residency. Out of state students had more knowledge of
the financial aid process than instate students, but they both had the same knowledge of
the process. Both instate and out of state students were most dissatisfied with the length
of the financial aid process, the office staff, and the quality of service received.
Important information must be provided to each student and their parents early in
the high school years (Sallie Mae Fund, 2004). Parents and students would like to receive
from teachers and counselors their financial aid information as early as junior high school
from teachers and counselors. The financial aid information is best targeted in venues
such as churches, civic areas, and libraries and should be placed in areas that are very
visible to parents and students. Every effort should be made to have the students
informed of the financial aid process as early as possible (Sallie Mae Fund, 2004).
Institutions, therefore, must focus on policies that better prepare students for
undergraduate and post-secondary education, and helping students understand the
financial options available. This can be achieved through early training, strengthening the
on campus financial aid system, and by providing resources such as on campus work
study and grants to at-risk students (Gladieux & Perna, 2005).
Data and Assessment
The students’ views on all aspects of their higher education experiences are
considered a part of quality monitoring at universities and are canvassed by institutions as
part of their marketing strategies (Hill, Laurie & MacGregor, 2003). Students perceive
the quality of faculty and the student support systems as determinants of quality in higher
education (Hill, Laurie & MacGregor, 2003). The organization that consistently measures

57. 44
the opinion of its customers will have products and services that are needed by the
customer and will be able to provide numerical evidence to substantiate the quality of
their products (Holcomb, 1993; Czarnecki, 1999). Measurement and analysis of critical
performance data are important to performance management. Data is critical for
performance review, process improvement, and implementation of similar programs in
other departments or institutions. It is through data analysis that performance can be
tracked (Balding Criteria, 2006).
Kaye and Anderson (1999) reported that the elements of best practice in a
continuous improving business mechanism should be implemented to regularly examine
the level of satisfaction of the stakeholders by identifying and monitoring their needs.
Self-assessment will measure the current performance of the institution or department
against a business model that can be used as the basis for continuous improvement (Kaye
& Anderson, 1999).
Institutions should collect information prior to the student entering the university
and throughout their college experience. The institution should have information from the
students concerning social integration, involvement in and out of the classroom, class
experiences, program activities, financial needs, and intention to work through structured
climate surveys. The student assessment data should also include student satisfaction with
campus climate, instructional effectiveness, financial aid effectiveness, registration
effectiveness, campus safety and security, and academic advising effectiveness (Tinto,
1993; Low, 1999; Furr and Elling, 2002).

58. 45
The data system must monitor the established parameters, focus on the goals and
provide diagnostic information to policymakers and the public (National Commission on
Accountability in Higher Education, 2005). Through focused self-assessment, the
institution can look at the areas of strengths and weaknesses. Institutions can examine the
areas for improvement, look at what they are doing great, and celebrate it while
improving on the areas of weaknesses. From this information a plan can be developed
among institutional leaders, staff, and faculty to improve the weak areas (Dew & Nering,
2004).
Siedman (2005) stated that colleges should amass information on potential at-risk
students before they enter and should use that database to create a profile on each student.
They should work with the students from high school to enrollment, determine the
students’ profile, examine the difficulties they may experience, and plan an intervention
strategy to match the students’ needs (Siedman, 2005). Early intervention and monitoring
of the student will ensure that the student is monitored and taught competent social and
academic skills for their college survival. This intervention should continue throughout
the students’ college career to affect the desired change (Siedman, 2005). According to
Tinto (1993), it is the responsibility of the institution to assist students who enroll and
monitor the students’ progress in the classroom throughout the student academic career.
Higher education generates an enormous amount of data through instruments and
surveys, but the system is weak and requires improvement in data utilization (National
Commission on Accountability in Higher Education, 2005). Edirisooriya (2002) argued
that institutions lose time and money, become inefficient, miscalculate priorities,

59. 46
underutilize resources, and create archaic situation in handling students’ information. In
order to improve information flow in the short-term, institutions must put in place a plan
that integrates available data through technology, training, and an institutionalize reward
system (Edirisooriya, 2002). To improve performance and accountability a better data
system is needed to provide information on the experiences of students and faculty so that
better decisions can be made with regard to measurable goals.
The Role of Institutional Management in Continuous Quality Environment
The role of the manager is to provide the strategic vision and direction for the
organization’s future, and set clear definable objectives. The manager must create
strategies to meet the objectives, implement, evaluate, and make modifications to meet
business needs (Thompson & Strickland, 1999).
Kaye and Anderson (1998) in a study of senior managers who had responsible for
quality in business organizations found the following good practices for continuous
improvement in the business sector: the evidence of senior management leadership,
customer, and stakeholder focus. The study found that there must be a culture of
continuous improvement, constant dialogue, visible employee involvement, self-
assessment to improve performance and processes, constant feedback, and measurement.
The study also found that weak organizations did not identify critical success factors, did
not understand continuous improvement and quality, and did not integrate sufficiently
continuous improvement practices (Kaye and Anderson, 1998).
Kaye and Anderson (1998) recommend that senior managers learn how to
integrate improvement activities within the organization and drive the business process