Esns 301 guidance&counselling;Makuna Pwani University

JAPHETH MAKUNA
japhethmakuna@yahoo.co.uk
educationalpsychologypu@yahoo.com (Psy123456)
0720360821
Office No. 365
ESN/S301: GUIDANCE
AND
COUNSELLING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Wednesday,April 30, 20141 PWANI UNIVERSITY

General Objective
 This course is intended to bring an
understanding of the various guidance and
counselling services provided to enable
students understand, accept, and utilize
their aptitudes and abilities and work on
their limitations in order to become
adjusted and functional members of the
society.

Specific objectives
 Define the terms guidance, counselling and
psychotherapy
 Analyse the major theories of guidance and
counselling,
 Discuss teachers’, learners’ and parents’
counselling needs in inclusive settings,
 Describe gender, sexuality and disability
counselling needs,

Specific objectives
 Explain the counselling of adolescents,
 Discuss effective counselling methods,
 Discuss educational and genetic counselling and
reproductive health,
 Explain interpersonal relationships and marriage,
 Describe circumstances where referrals and
follow-up are done in counselling

INTRODUCTION
 School guidance programme provides
professional services to children, pupils, students
to assist them to make appropriate decisions or
adjustment.

INTRODUCTION
 Students are assisted to understand, accept
themselves, and utilize their abilities, attitudes,
and interests to become useful members of the
society.

GUIDANCE
 Definition;
 Downing (1968) defined guidance services as an
organized set of specific services established as an
integral part of the school environment designed to
promote the development of students and assist them
toward a realization of sound, wholesome adjustment,
and maximum accomplishments according to their
potentialities.

GUIDANCE
 Patterson (1973) defined Guidance as “a term
referring to a broad area of educational activities
and services aimed at assisting individuals in
making and carrying out adequate plans and
achieving satisfactory adjustments in life”.

GUIDANCE
 In the school setting is a process that is aimed
at leading the individual to the
achievement of desired life goals
i.e. facilitate the achievement of desired life
goals.
It is meant to equip the individual with
knowledge and techniques that will enable
him/her to identify and find ways of solving
problems before they confront him/her.

GUIDANCE
 Guidance is also defined as a process,
developmental in nature, by which an individual
is assisted to understand, accept, and utilize his
abilities, aptitudes, interests, and attitudinal
patterns in relation to his aspirations.
 The major purpose of guidance services is
to assist students to make appropriate
decisions.

GUIDANCE
 The Ministry of Education (1997) defined
guidance as “a continuing process concerned
with determining and providing for
developmental needs of learners”.
 These definitions indicate that guidance is a
life-long process that involves helping
individuals both as a group and at the
personal level.

ASSUMPTIONS UNDER-GIRDING
GUIDANCE SERVICES
 The concept of guidance services is predicated upon
two major assumptions:
1. Man has dignity and worth and is therefore
worthy of respect and assistance;
2. Man is not completely self-sufficient and needs
assistance in resolving a number of critical
problems which confront him throughout his life-
span.

Note
 Guidance covers activities designed to direct and
promote developmental progress in a
general way.

PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
1. Guidance is concerned with systematic
development of the individual.
 This implies that in addition to academic assessment by
teachers, the guidance teacher should help the individual
students to systematically assess their aspects of
development such as adjustment and athletic ability.

PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
2. Guidance is a continuous, sequential educational
process.
 This means that guidance should be provided throughout one’s
life.
 It implies that the individual guidance begins at home goes on
school and in the society smoothly.
 Therefore, there will be need for the parents, the teachers, and
the community to be in harmony and co-operate so that the
individual is guided to acquire the right behaviour and values.

Objectives Of School Guidance
Programme
1. To educate the student so he/she can make an informed
career choice is crucial.
2. To make the youth aware of the educational and
occupational realities.
 This is central to any programme of school guidance
because the student’s experiences are often so narrow that
he/she simply does not perceive the opportunities, which
actually exist.

Programme
 Guidance programmes must first serve a
diagnostic function by providing a clear picture of
occupational needs of the nation and how these
needs are reflected in actual educational openings
and the present job market.
 This information is communicated effectively to
the students so as to broaden their perspectives.

Programme
 A variety of approaches may be used to broaden
this perspective
 Field trips,
 Vocational seminars
 Visiting experts,
 Career conferences,
 Development of summer work opportunities,
and
 A library Resource Centre (internet,
literature…), etc.

Programme
3. To cultivate within the student questions about
him/her, which must be raised before such
experiences are even relevant.
4. To face him/herself with “who am I?” in relation
to his/her own aspirations expectations,
interests, and unique background is a necessary
preface to any decision making process.

Programme
 To understand one’s own strengths and limitations are
important
 More essential is the ability to accept them.
 This takes a long period of time and can be facilitated in
many ways.
 One way is through a School’s Curriculum, perhaps in
 Creative writing
 Literature
 History
 Human biology or
 An exploration of current events and
 Participation in extracurricular activities.

GUIDANCE IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN
SOCIETY
 Guidance of the youth, children and in some cases adults has
been practised for as long as man has lived.
 Men/women have always sought the advice and counsel of
others who had superior knowledge, insight, or experience
(Mbiti, 1970).

SOCIETY
 The youth were educated about the traditions and
culture of the community.
 This was done by the elders as part of their social
responsibility.
 Guidance was given to any member of the society
regardless of his/her age as long as he/she was
found wanting in any aspect of social life and
responsibility (Ibid, 1970).

SOCIETY
 The practitioners were entirely private family affairs with
senior members i.e. parents, relatives and elders acting as
counsellors.
 Serious or complicated behaviour problems were handled by
organized panels of elders or experienced persons in the
communities.
 Guidance and counselling took place in groups and
sometimes through ceremonial gatherings such as initiation
or circumcision, and during marriage times.

SOCIETY
 The youth were given advice by the elders on how to be
responsible and live according to societal expectations.
 Girls (female clients) were guided by their mothers, aunts
 Boys (men) were guided by their fathers, uncles, grandfathers
and other responsible men in the community.

SOCIETY
 Some of the techniques used during guidance
and counselling were;
Storytelling,
Proverbs,
Formal instructions,
Songs and
Riddles etc

GOALS OF EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE
 The Handbook for Schools’ Guidance Counsellors (1977) pg.
7 gives the following goals to help counsellors plan their
work.
 Educational guidance is the process of helping students;

1. To develop their natural curiosity about the world
around them.
 By;
 Asking questions and searching for answers.
 Introducing new concepts and trying new methods.

2. To develop techniques and resources that will
facilitate their learning, such as;
 Helping new students adjust to a new school environment by
learning names of staff members, significance of school
traditions, interpreting time tables, understanding basic
regulations, becoming familiar with extra-curricular activities.
 Developing and seeking to correct reading difficulties.
 Planning more effective study habits.
 Guiding students in the use of the school library and in the
acquisition of other reference material.

3. To realize the values of education
 Acquired formally (in school, training situations, higher
institutions of learning) or informally (through every day
experiences):
 In gaining knowledge and understanding
 In acquiring skills
 In solving problems
 In developing relationships
 In developing appreciations for people, places, and things
 In enhancing one’s earning capacity

4. To discover their special aptitudes and their
limitations.
 This may involve some testing; it requires cumulative
academic records and the recording of observations
and interviews.

5. To recognize the importance of maintaining a
good academic record, for it is closely related to
future educational and occupational
opportunities.
 Visits to training institutions, colleges, and universities may
create an incentive to qualify for such opportunities.

THE SCOPE OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE
PROGRAMME
 The programme has several inter-related components.

PROGRAMME
1. EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE
 A learner in a new school or in a higher level of learning are helped to adjust to the new
and unfamiliar educational environment.
 The learner is helped to cope with new teachers, subjects classes regulations,
accommodation, and boarding facilities.
 Orientation programmes organized by Guidance and Counselling Department would
enable the learner to settle down faster.
 The learners are taught how to be good time managers.
 They are instructed on effective study methods and skills.
 They are also motivated to develop positive attitude towards school.

PROGRAMME
2. VOCATIONAL/CAREER GUIDANCE
 Vocational choice is defined as “the process of assisting an
individual who possesses certain assets, abilities and possibilities to
select from many occupations one that is suited to himself and
then aid him/her in preparing for it, entering upon and professing
it,”(Ibid, 1977).
 Vocational guidance provides information about job opportunities
and the factors affecting the job market such as employment
information, technology, and international relations.
 The learner is better informed about subject of study and subject
choices.

PROGRAMME
3. GUIDANCE FOR DEVELOPMENT
 As learners grow up they need information on what changes to
expect as they move from one stage of growth and development to
another.
 They require guidance on how to successfully cope with
challenges that characterize each phase of development.
 Through developmental (facilitative) guidance and counselling the
learner is enabled to set goals appropriate in each stage, anticipate
possible outcomes and discover how to work towards a higher
level of achievement for his/her own good and the good of the
society.

PROGRAMME
4. GUIDANCE FOR ADJUSTMENT
 Guidance and counselling helps the learners to develop a
deeper understanding of who they are and acknowledge their
potential abilities and their weaknesses.
 This in turn enables them work towards strengthening the
positive aspects about themselves and eliminate the negative
ones.

PROGRAMME
5. PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING
 The learner with personal psychological problems acquires life
skills; attitudes and living values that enable him/her manage
his/her problems with less fear and anxiety.
 A child with signs of personality or social maladjustment is helped
to identify possible corrective measures so as to overcome
personal difficulties, which may lead to unacceptable behaviour.
 Corrective or remedial guidance and counselling is offered to
learners with disruptive behaviour. The main purpose of this is to
promote behaviour change.

PROGRAMME
6. HEALTH GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 Preventive guidance assists a learner to identify and avoid
situations or activities that are potentially dangerous.
 Those learners already involved in risky behaviour are helped
through adjustive guidance to appreciate how their attitude or
actions may lead to unpleasant consequences.
 The guidance and counselling programme promotes good physical
and mental health by teaching about nutrition and hygiene,
prevention of diseases and especially the sexually transmitted and
HIV/AIDS.

PROGRAMME
7. CIVIC GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
 This prepares the learners to be good citizens.
 They are taught how to be amicable with other people by
promoting Kenyan motto of “peace, love and unity.”
 All forms of discriminations, gender inequality, corruption
are discouraged.
 Children are taught civic responsibilities such as voting and
democratic ideals.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term guidance
2. Discuss the goals of school guidance.
3. Discuss incidences when you would offer the guidance for
i. Development
ii. Adjustment and
iii. Healthy counselling.
4. Under what circumstances do you offer services of
psychological Counselling to a student?

ROLE OF THE GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELING SPECIALIST
 The counsellor would:
1. Engage in professional counselling with small groups
of students (six to eight) with similar problems relating to
self and/or to others.
2. Engage in professional counselling with the
individual student who is troubled.
3. Conduct group-centred in-service programmes
with teachers, administrators, and parents whereby
they could become acquainted with the philosophical and
empirical considerations that influence the work of the
counsellor.

Cont’…
Wednesday,April 30, 2014PWANI UNIVERSITY42
4. Conduct research designed to measure the effectiveness of
individual and group counselling.
5. Motivate students to seek counselling of their own volition
through a creative and continuous orientation programme
(Angelo & Pine,1968).

ROLE OF THE GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELING SPECIALIST
 The guidance specialist would:
1. Conduct group guidance classes according to the
surveyed informational needs and interests of the student
population.
2. Assist the individual student in the rational planning and
attainment of educational and / or vocational objectives.
3. Provide individuals and groups with information about
scholarships, fellowships, and loans.

Cont’…
1. Administer, score, and interpret standardized
intelligence, achievement, interest, aptitude, and
personality tests to the student population.
2. Provide leadership to teachers in the development of valid
and reliable teacher made subject-matter tests.
3. Conduct research designed to measure the effectiveness of
the total guidance programme.
4. Motivate students to make use of informational and testing
services by a creative and continuous orientation programme.

COUNSELLING
 Tolber (1959) defines Counselling as “a person at face-to-face
relationship between two people in which the counsellor, by
means of this relationship and his/her special competencies
provides a learning situation in which the client is helped to
know him/herself and his/her present and possible future
situations so that he/she can make use of his/her
characteristics and potentialities in a way that is both
satisfying to oneself and beneficial to the society”.

COUNSELLING
 Patterson (1973) defines counselling as “a process which
eventually helps normal individuals to deal with or
remove frustrations and obstacles that interfere
with their daily lives”.
 He sees counselling as a part of guidance.
 Hence, we can say that counselling is a face-to-face human
encounter whose outcome is greatly dependent upon the
quality of the counselling relationship.

COUNSELLING
 The key elements in counselling are that:-
 Counselling is a professional service provided by trained and
competent persons, to an individual or group in need.
 It is a process that involves both the counsellor and the client where
the client determines the direction and the goals to be achieved.
 It is a dynamic relationship between the counsellor and the client
where the counsellor establishes rapport but maintains a
psychological distance to avoid an overly emotional involvement.
 Counselling is a teaching-learning process where the client learns
new behaviours and attitudes through cognitive reasoning and/or
behaviour modification.

PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING
1. Counselling helps the client to move towards a greater level of
self-acceptance and self-understanding.
 Counselling should help the client become more self-aware and
realistically accept his/her abilities and limitations.
 The individual should be encouraged to overcome biased self-
perceptions, distorted realities and harmful attitudes because they
tend to lead to self-destruction.
 Such self-awareness serves as a source of energy to achieve much
more.

2. Counselling is always client centered.
 The need of the client come first.
 A counsellor should, while counselling, avoid bringing in
his/her personal needs or being overly emotionally
involved.
 He/she should concentrate on the needs of the client.
 The client should be allowed to set his/her own goals while
the counsellor plays a facilitative and supportive role.

3. Accepting counselling on the part of the client leads
to a greater level of honesty toward others, but more
so towards the self.
 This means that the clients real self resembles more and more
his/her ideal self.
 That is, his/her self-concept is becoming congruent with
his/her experiences.
 As the client shares his/her repressed tendencies and distorted
experiences with others, they will provide the needed positive
feedback.

 Counselling is personal, intimate, and totally individual in focus.
 Its purpose is to enhance the personal development, and the
psychological growth toward maturity of its clients.
 The ultimate purpose of a good guidance and counseling
programme should be to help the individual student to acquire
understanding, ability and appreciation necessary to act
intelligently and effectively in dealing with problems of everyday
life.
 Counselling is thus a means or a process of helping a student to
help him/herself.

 The teacher counsellor works closely with other
professionals e.g. medical personnel, social workers, other
staff members, the parents, etc. through referrals.
 He/she also works with other persons in his/her
environment in a manner, which facilitates the achievement
of desirable objectives for the benefit of the student.

COUNSELLING
 The teacher counsellor is more concerned with the
development of what is, than with fundamental change with
the deep and distant past;
 with making the best of a situation as it actually is, rather than
with altering the way of the world (Kagan, 1984).

COUNSELLING
 The teacher counsellor works individually with each student
trying to help the counsellee ;
 Gain a meaningful perspective of his/her strengths and
weaknesses,
 Get a clear vision of his/her opportunity, and a knowledge of
existing or possible interferences in his/her maturing and
adjustment throughout life.

COUNSELLING
 It is not the function of the teacher counsellor to “tell” the
student.
 The teacher counsellor is committed to assisting each student in
the struggle for self-understanding.

FUNCTIONS OF A TEACHER
COUNSELLOR
1. Planning and development of the guidance
programme .
 He/she co-ordinates various aspects of the programme in a
meaningful sequence of guidance services,
 He/she helps the head teacher to identify the guidance needs of
the students.

COUNSELLOR
2. Providing counselling services.
 It is essential that the teacher counsellor devotes time to
individual or group counselling meetings.

COUNSELLOR
3. Student appraisal,
 The counsellor co-ordinates the accumulation of
meaningful information concerning the students.
 Such information is gathered through
 conferences with students,
 interviews with students,
 academic records,
 observations, and thus identifies students with special needs.

COUNSELLOR
4. Educational and vocational planning.
 This may include assisting the students in relating their
interests (aspirations), aptitudes and abilities to current and
future educational and vocational opportunities and
requirements.
 He/she also collects and disseminates to students
information concerning careers, opportunities for further
education and training.

COUNSELLOR
5. Referral work.
 The teacher counsellor has a major responsibility in making
and coordinating referral services within public and private
agencies.

COUNSELLOR
6. Staff consultation.
 The counsellor shares the student information data with
staff members, with due regard to confidentiality.
 He/she helps staff members to identify students with
special needs and problems and keeps them informed of
developments concerning individual students, which might
have a bearing on their learning.

THE MAJOR THEORIES OF GUIDANCE
AND COUNSELLING
No single model can explain all the facets
of human experience
Different theories are not “right” or
“wrong”

AND COUNSELLING
The therapeutic relationship is an important component of
effective counseling
The therapist as a person is a key part of the effectiveness of
therapeutic treatments
Research shows that both the therapy relationship and the
therapy used contribute to treatment outcome

AND COUNSELLING
The most important instrument you have isYOU
Your living example of who you are and how you
struggle to live up to your potential is powerful.
Be authentic
The stereotyped, professional role can be shed
If you hide behind your role the client will also hide.
Be a therapeutic person and be clear about who you are
Be willing to grow, to risk, to care, and to be
involved

Psychoanalysis
 Developed by Sigmund Freud
 The Structure of Personality
THE ID—The Demanding Child
Ruled by the pleasure principle
THE EGO—TheTraffic Cop
Ruled by the reality principle
THE SUPEREGO—The Judge
Ruled by the moral principle

Psychoanalysis
 Conscious and Unconscious
Conscious:
What’s on the
surface
i.e. logic, reality
Unconscious:
What lies deep,
below the surface
i.e. drives, instincts

Psychoanalysis
 The Unconscious
Clinical evidence for postulating the unconscious:
Dreams
Slips of the tongue
Posthypnotic suggestions
Material derived from free-association
Material derived from projective techniques
Symbolic content of psychotic symptoms
NOTE: consciousness is only a thin slice of the
total mind

Psychoanalysis
 Anxiety
 Feeling of dread resulting from repressed feelings, memories and
desires
Develops out of conflict among the id, ego and superego to
control psychic energy
 RealityAnxiety
 Neurotic Anxiety
 MoralAnxiety

Psychoanalysis
Ego-defense mechanisms:
Are normal behaviors which operate on an
unconscious level and tend to deny or distort reality
Help the individual cope with anxiety and prevent
the ego from being overwhelmed
Have adaptive value if they do not become a style of
life to avoid facing reality

Psychoanalysis
 The Development of Personality
 ORAL STAGE First year(0-18 months)
 Related to later mistrust and rejection issues
 ANAL STAGE Ages 1-3
 Related to later personal power issues
 PHALLIC STAGE Ages 3-6
 Related to later sexual attitudes
 LATENCY STAGE Ages 6-12
 A time of socialization
 GENITAL STAGE Ages 12-60
 Sexual energies are invested in life

Psychoanalysis
 Some behaviours are fixated during personality development.
 These affect the individual when is a grown up.

Psychoanalysis
 PsychoanalyticTechniques
 FreeAssociation
Client reports immediately without censuring any feelings or
thoughts
 Interpretation
Therapist points out, explains, and teaches the meanings of
whatever is revealed

Psychoanalysis
 DreamAnalysis
Therapist uses the “royal road to the unconscious” to bring
unconscious material to light
Latent content
Manifest content

Psychoanalysis
Resistance
Anything that works against the progress of therapy
and prevents the production of unconscious material
Analysis of Resistance
Helps the client to see that canceling appointments,
fleeing from therapy prematurely, etc., are ways of
defending against anxiety
These acts interfere with the ability to accept
changes which could lead to a more satisfying life

Psychoanalysis
 Transference and Counter-transference
Transference
The client reacts to the therapist as he did to an
earlier significant other
This allows the client to experience feelings that
would otherwise be inaccessible
ANALYSIS OFTRANSFERENCE — allows the
client to achieve insight into the influence of the
past

Psychoanalysis
Counter-transference
The reaction of the therapist toward the client that
may interfere with objectivity
Not always detrimental to therapeutic goals; can
provide important means of understanding your
client’s world
Counter-transference reactions must be
monitored so that they are used to promote
understanding of the client and the therapeutic
process

Application to Group Counseling
 Group work provides a rich framework for working through
transference feelings
 Feelings resembling those that members have experienced
toward significant people in their past may emerge
 Group members may come to represent symbolic figures from
a client’s past
 Competition for attention of the leader provides opportunities to
explore how members dealt with feelings of competition in the
past and how this effects their current interactions with others.
 Projections experienced in group provide valuable clues to a
client’s unresolved conflicts

Person-Centered View of Human
Nature
 Developed by Carl Rogers
 At their core, humans are trustworthy and positive
 Humans are capable of making changes and living productive,
effective lives
 Humans innately gravitate toward self-actualization
 Actualizing tendency
 Given the right growth-fostering conditions, individuals strive to
move forward and fulfill their creative nature

Nature
 Challenges:
 The assumption that “the counselor knows best”
 The validity of advice, suggestion, persuasion,
teaching, diagnosis,
and interpretation
 The belief that clients cannot understand and resolve
their own problems without direct help
 The focus on problems over persons

Nature
 Emphasizes:
 Therapy as a journey shared by two fallible people
 The person’s innate striving for self-actualization
 The personal characteristics of the therapist and the
quality of the therapeutic relationship
 The counselor’s creation of a permissive,“growth-
promoting” climate
 People are capable of self-directed growth if involved
in a therapeutic relationship

Nature
 The Person-CentredTherapy is a Growth-Promoting
Climate
 Emphasizes facilitative counseling with the following
conditions;
1. Congruence
 Genuineness or realness in the therapy session
 Therapist’s behaviors match his or her words

Person-Centred Therapy
2. Unconditional positive regard
 Acceptance and genuine caring about the client as a
valuable person
 Accepting clients as they presently are
 Therapist need not approve of all client behavior

3. Accurate empathic understanding
 The ability to deeply grasp the client’s subjective
world
 Helper attitudes are more important than knowledge
 The therapist need not experience the situation to
develop an understanding of it from the client’s
perspective

 Six Conditions necessary and sufficient for personality
changes to occur;
 Two persons are in psychological contact
 The first, the client, is experiencing incongruence
 The second person, the therapist, is congruent or integrated
in the relationship

 The therapist experiences unconditional
positive regard or real caring for the client
 The therapist experiences empathy for the
client’s internal frame of reference and
endeavors to communicate this to the client
 The communication to the client is, to a
minimal degree, achieved

 TheTherapist
1. Provides a supportive therapeutic environment in which
the client is the agent of change and healing
2. Serves as a model of a human being struggling toward
greater realness

3. Is genuine, integrated, and authentic, without a false front
4. Can openly express feelings and attitudes that are present
in the relationship with the client
5. Is invested in developing his or her own life experiences to
deepen self- knowledge and move toward self-
actualization

 Application to Group Counseling
 Therapist takes on the role of facilitator
 Creates therapeutic environment
 Techniques are not stressed
 Exhibits deep trust of the group members
 Provides support for members
 Group members set the goals for the group

 Group setting fosters an open and accepting community
where members can work on self-acceptance
 Individuals learn that they do not have to experience the
process of change alone and grow from the support of
group members

Person-Centered Expressive Arts
Therapy
 Various creative art forms
 promote healing and self-discovery
 are inherently healing and promote self-awareness
and insight
 Creative expression connects us to our feelings which
are a source of life energy.
 Feelings must be experienced to achieve self-
awareness.

Person-Centered Expressive Arts
Therapy
 Individuals explore new facets of the self and uncover
insights that transform them, creating wholeness
 Discovery of wholeness leads to understanding of
how we relate to the outer world.
 The client’s inner world and outer world become
unified.

 Conditions for Creativity
 Acceptance of the individual
 A non-judgmental setting
 Empathy
 Psychological freedom

 Stimulating and challenging experiences
 Individuals who have experienced unsafe creative
environments feel “held back” and may disengage from
creative processes
 Safe, creative environments give clients permission to be
authentic and to delve deeply into their experiences

Limitations of the Person-Centered
Approach
 Cultural considerations
 Some clients may prefer a more directive, structured
treatment
 Individuals accustomed to indirect communication
may not be comfortable with direct expression of
empathy or creativity
 Individuals from collectivistic cultures may disagree
with the emphasis on internal locus of control

Limitations of the Person-Centered
Approach
 Does not focus on the use of specific techniques, making
this treatment difficult to standardize
 Beginning therapists may find it difficult to provide both
support and challenges to clients
 Limits of the therapist as a person may interfere with
developing a genuine therapeutic relationship

Gestalt Therapy
 Developed by German Psychologists; Fritz Perls, Max
Wertheimer, Kurt Kaffka & ChristianVon Ehrenfels
 It is grounded in the client’s "here and now”
 It focuses on the awareness of the whole person
 If you want to understand a person, you need to
understand his /her environment also.
 If an individual neglects the self while attending to the
demands of self-image, may exhibit maladaptive
behaviours

Gestalt Therapy
 Initial goal is for clients to gain awareness of what they
are experiencing and doing now.
 Promotes direct experiencing rather than the
abstractness of talking about situations
 Rather than talk about a childhood trauma the client
is encouraged to become the hurt child

Principles of Gestalt Theory
 Holism:
 The full range of human functioning includes thoughts,
feelings,behaviors,body,language and dreams
 Field theory:
 The field is the client’s environment which consists of
therapist and client and all that goes on between
them
 Client is a participant in a constantly changing field

Principles of Gestalt Theory
 Figure Formation Process:
 How an individual organizes experiences from
moment to moment
 Foreground: figure
 Background: ground
 Organismic self-regulation:
 Emergence of need sensations and interest disturb an
individual’s equilibrium

The Now
 Our “power is in the present”
 Nothing exists except the “now”
 The past is gone and the future has not yet
arrived
 For many people the power of the present is lost
 They may focus on their past mistakes or
engage in endless resolutions and plans for the
future

Unfinished Business
 Feelings about the past are unexpressed
 These feelings are associated with distinct memories
and fantasies
 Feelings not fully experienced linger in the
background and interfere with effective contact
 Result:
 Preoccupation, compulsive behavior, wariness
oppressive energy and self-defeating behavior

Contact and Resistances to Contact
 Contact
 Interacting with nature and with other people without
losing one’s individuality
 Boundary Disturbances/ resistance to contact
 The defenses we develop to prevent us from experiencing
the present fully
 Five major channels of resistance:
 Introjection • Deflection
 Projection • Confluence
 Retroflection

GOALS OF GESTALT THERAPY
 To help the Client to achieve self-integration that
he/she lost in the course of his/ her
development.
 To help the client to live here and now.
One is helped to become aware of his/her
thoughts, feelings and actions in the present
He/she begins living here and now with its
realities
This is the main curative factor in Gestalt

Therapeutic Techniques
 Directed awareness
 Use of “I” language
 The experiment in GestaltTherapy
 Internal dialogue exercise; Games of Dialogue

Therapeutic Techniques
 Rehearsal exercise
 Reversal technique
 Exaggeration exercise
 Staying with the feeling
 Making the rounds
 Dream work

 Encourages direct experience and action
 Here-and-now focus allows members to bring
unfinished business to the present
 Members try out experiments within the group setting

 Leaders can use linking to include members in the
exploration of a particular individual’s problem
 Leaders actively design experiments for the group while
focusing on awareness and contact
 Group leaders actively engage with the members to form a
sense of mutuality in the group

Limitations of Gestalt Therapy
 The approach has the potential for the therapist to abuse
power by using powerful techniques without proper training
 This approach may not be useful for clients who have
difficulty abstracting and imagining
 The emphasis on therapist authenticity and self-disclosure
may be overpowering for some clients
 The high focus on emotion may pose limitations for clients
who have been culturally conditioned to be emotionally
reserved

Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
(REBT)
 Developed byAlbert Ellis
 Stresses thinking, judging, deciding, analyzing, and doing
 Assumes that cognitions, emotions, and behaviors interact
and have a reciprocal cause-and-effect relationship
 Is highly didactic, very directive, and concerned as much
with thinking as with feeling
 Teaches that our emotions stem mainly from our beliefs,
evaluations, interpretations, and reactions to life situations

The Therapeutic Process
 Therapy is seen as an educational process
 Clients learn
 To identify the interplay of their thoughts, feelings
and behaviors
 To identify and dispute irrational beliefs that are
maintained by self-indoctrination
 To replace ineffective ways of thinking with effective
and rational cognitions
 To stop absolutistic thinking, blaming, and repeating
false beliefs

View of Human Nature
 We are born with a potential for both rational and irrational
thinking
 We have the biological and cultural tendency to think
crookedly and to needlessly disturb ourselves
 We learn and invent disturbing beliefs and keep ourselves
disturbed through our self-talk
 We have the capacity to change our cognitive, emotive, and
behavioral processes

Irrational Ideas
 Irrational ideas lead to self-defeating behavior
 Some examples:
 “I must have love or approval from all the significant
people in my life.”
 “I must perform important tasks competently and
perfectly.”
 “If I don’t get what I want, it’s terrible, and I can’t
stand it.”

Counseling Goals
 The Counsellor helps the client to change
or minimize self-defeating irrational ideas,
emotions and behaviours

Application of REBT to Group
Counseling
 Tailored for specific diagnoses such as anxiety, panic, eating
disorders and phobias
 Treatments are standardized and based on empirical evidence
 Use of homework allows lessons learned in group to generalize to
the client’s daily environment
 Help members gain awareness of how their self-defeating
thoughts influence what they feel and how they behave
 Heavy emphasis on psychoeducation and prevention of symptoms

Theories of Counselling
 The Real Meaning of Happiness is giving it out to someone
else

Other theories
 Transactional Analysis by Eric Berne
 Life positions
 I am Ok, you are Ok
 I am Ok,You are not Ok
 Am not ok you are not Ok
 Life Scripts
 Descriptions of how things are done in different situations and
hence how we act or behave when in those situations.
 They become a person’s life plan
 They direct our actions in every life situation

Other theories
 RealityTherapy
 ByWilliam Glasser
 He proposes that a human being has psychological needs such as
love and belonging, power, freedom and desire to have fun.
 Human being’s sole physiological need is Survival
 These needs must be fulfilled in a responsible manner in order
for the person to develop to a healthy functioning personality

JAPHETH MAKUNA
TEACHERS’, LEARNERS’ AND PARENTS’
COUNSELLING NEEDS IN INCLUSIVE
SETTINGS,

TEACHERS’ COUNSELING NEEDS IN AN
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 DiscussTeachers’ counseling needs in an inclusive setting

Discussion
 Teachers with disabilities
 HIV/AIDS infections
 Family/marriage issues
 Workload;Teaching and dual roles
 Teacher-Teacher relationships
 Teacher-student relationships

LEARNERS’ COUNSELING NEEDS IN AN
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 The term ‘children with special needs’ is used to
describe the children whose needs fall outside the
established‘normal’ range.
 The needs may be
 Physical,
 Behavioural,
 Cognitive,
 Cocial/ emotional etc.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
Other terms used to describe these children include:
 Children with exceptionalities,
 Children with challenges and
 Children with disabilities

INCLUSIVE SETTING
The diagnoses which are commonly recognized among
children:
 Autism spectrum disorder(ASD), primarily a
behavioural
and developmental disorder
 Cerebral palsy – manifested mainly as a physical
(motor-
based) disability,
 Down syndrome and other syndromes physical
manifestations and involving developmental and intellectual
disabilities

INCLUSIVE SETTING
Diagnoses contd.
 Sensory-based disabilities, that is, visual and hearing deficits
However, there is sometimes confusion about other
disabilities such as learning and intellectual disabilities
 These children are often labeled incorrectly before
a professional diagnosis is made
 Children who are gifted and talented are often also
misunderstood by teachers

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Common mistakes made by teachers:
 A learning disability and an intellectual disability is the same.
- a child with cerebral palsy also has an intellectual disability
 The most basic requirement should be that all teachers
are knowledgeable about the different types of
disabilities they are likely to encounter in the classroom.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 The child with a learning disability may be average or above
average in overall intelligence but may have difficulty with a
specific academic area such as reading, writing, mathematics,
spelling…
 They may also have challenges in recalling and organizing
information if not given appropriate guidance and if taught
using traditional teaching methods.

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Intellectual Disability (formally MR) is defined as an
intellectual functioning level that is below average and with
significant limitations in daily living skills
(adaptive functioning).
 These limitations will cause a child to learn and develop
more slowly than a typical child.
 Levels of disability are expressed as mild, moderate and
severe.
 However, the mild ID child can have highly developed skills
in a particular area – negotiating sales (street smart).

INCLUSIVE SETTING
What is a disability?
There are varying types, levels and combinations of
sensory, cognitive, physical and mental conditions which
fall under the umbrella of ‘disability’..
TheWorld Health Organization defines Disability as
“… an umbrella term,covering impairments,activity limitations,
and participation restrictions …..

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Disability should be distinguished from “handicap”
which are environmental “obstacles” that can be physical, social or
cultural that impede persons from having access to amenities and
basic rights, for e.g. the absence of a ramp in a building handicaps a
person who is wheelchair bound.
 The education system or teachers’ attitudes towards
children with disabilities can also prove to be an
handicap, preventing them from achieving their
educational goals.

Boy with Cerebral Palsy

DOWNS SYNDROME FLOPPY MUSCLE TONE
EYE SHAPE HIGH PALATE

Boy with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Provisions for students with Special
Needs
 In developed Countries the provision of special education
services is mandated by law.
 In the USA - The Individuals with Disabilities
 Students can be placed in fully inclusive classrooms,
mainstreamed or segregated for instruction.
 In Canada, provincial governments determine the extent of
support for each child.

Provisions for students with Special
Needs
 In these countries, the focus is on the definition of disability
in order to obtain funding for each student.
 The cost for special education services is exorbitant and
budgets within the Departments of Education have been greatly
impacted as more disabilities have been added for special
education services.
 InAustralia - the number of children requiring special education
intervention within regular classrooms moved significantly by
adding Asperger’s Syndrome and Attention Deficit and
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
 The prevalence of children with ADHD, 6 – 17 years, was found to
be 11.2% (Sawyer et al, 2002).

Types of Intervention – Students with
Special Needs
 Inclusion – children with different levels of disability
are accommodated in all classes with support
 Mainstreaming – students join classes for
particular subjects
 Resource Rooms – Students go to resource room (already
exists in public and private schools).
 Resource Persons – Special educator, Reading
specialist, Guidance Counselor
 Itinerant teams – school and or clinical psychologists,
nurse, special educator, occupational therapist, speech and
physical therapist

Role of the Teacher as Parent
Confidant
 The birth of a baby born with a disability is seen as a death
to expectations for parents and extended family members.
Emotions may include:
 Shock and disbelief
 Anger and resentment before resignation and
acceptance ..this is my burden, my test of faith.
 There may be bitterness and unacceptance
(rejection leading to neglect)Resolution – to do the
best for this child

Role of the Teacher as Parent
Confidant
 The parents of children with special needs are in need of a lot
of psychological support.
 They may appear to be defensive, demanding, in denial and
overprotective but they are often still working through the
impact of having a child with special needs.

Role of the Teacher in Identification
and Referral Process
 Teachers are often the first to detect a disability or
significant delay
 Teachers can provide useful information necessary to
determine a diagnosis.
 There is no room for assumptions. Refer if in
doubt.
 Several conditions can mimic a presentation of ID or ADHD
incld. iron deficiency, ear, nose and throat, malnutrition…
 Teachers’ careful observation provide evidence for
medication e.g. children with ADHD

Role of Teacher in Intervention
 Teachers input is essential in developing and reviewing
individual education plans (IEPs).
 Teachers must record their observations to be used as
evidence in discussions.
 Teachers must pursue the recommendations provided
through comprehensive assessments.
 Teachers’ must employ best practices – training is
essential

Role of Teacher in Intervention
 Teachers’ self efficacy must be evident – seek out
information, improving practice, setting personal goals,
finding ways to improve the work environment.
 What contributes to your self fulfillment as a teacher?

NB
 Children with special education needs in the classroom will
perform best if:
 The student to teacher ratio is smaller
 There is an IEP for each student with special education
support
 There is sufficient space for children to learn comfortably

NB
 There is a comprehensive intervention team including:
 School/clinical/counseling psychologists,
 Guidance counselor,
 Speech therapist,
 Occupational therapists,
 Physical therapists,
 Behaviour therapists,
 Special educators

They want to make it to the finish line!

PARENTS’ COUNSELING NEEDS IN AN
INCLUSIVE SETTING
 Discuss parents’ counseling needs in an inclusive setting

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 The birth of a baby born with a disability is seen as a death
to expectations for parents and extended family members.
Emotions may include:
 Shock and disbelief
 Anger and resentment before resignation and
acceptance ..this is my burden, my test of faith.
 There may be bitterness and unacceptance
(rejection leading to neglect)Resolution – to do the
best for this child

INCLUSIVE SETTING
 They may appear to be
 Defensive,
 Demanding,
 In denial and
 Overprotective
 They are in need of a lot of psychological support.

JAPHETH MAKUNA
GENDER, SEXUALITY AND DISABILITY
COUNSELLING NEEDS

INTRODUCTION
 What is gender?
 What is human sexuality?
 What do you think of;
 Lesbian,
 Gay
 Bisexual,
 Transgender/sexual,
 Intersex
 Should homosexuality be legalized in Kenya?
 What is your view about the Ugandan Law about
Homosexuals?

The Meaning of Gender and Sex
 Gender is the concept used to identify a human being as
male, female.
 Usually it is used to highlight the social distinctions
between men and women;
 For example the positions they occupy the roles they
play and the social status they have are socially
constructed and allocated.

 Gender is distinguished from sex, which is biologically
determined.
 Gender is socially constructed, it is affected by many factors.
 All of us are gendered
 This means we are socially conditioned to take on roles and
responsibilities allocated as given to men and women.

 The meaning and roles expectation can change over time
 It can be both progressive and regressive.
 In war and conflict situations, women are likely to
experience more restrictive practices relating to gender
expectations than during peace time (women have to be
protected; men have to be the protectors).

 Women often become head of families for a long time during
war periods and they might have to expand their activities
both within and outside of the home.
 This sometimes causes family conflict after the war when
their male family members return home and women are
again subjected to restrictions.

 The term ‘gender’ is widely used in humanitarian aid
programs for consideration of existing inequalities between
males and females on development issues and how these
inequalities can be re-address.

Gender-based violence
 Gender-based violence (GBV) is an umbrella
terminology for any harm that is perpetrated against a
person’s will and that has a negative impact on the
 Physical or psychological health,
 Development, and
 Identity of the person.

 GBV may be;
 Physical,
 Sexual,
 Psychological,
 Economic violence or
 Socio-cultural.

Types of Gender-based violence
Which types/forms of Gender-based violence do
exist?
How many of them do we know?

 Physical violence:
 Physical assault;
 Murder,
 Physical harassment in public;
 Attempted murder;
 Denied access to medical treatment;,
 Harmful traditional.

 Sexual violence:
 Forced marriage;
 Child marriage;
 Forced engagement;
 Forced prostitution;
 Rape;
 Forced sexual intercourse with husband;
 Incest;
 Sexual assault and
 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).

Psychological/emotional violence:
 Denial of food or basic needs;
 Prevention of education,
 Refusal to communicate;
 Preventing maternal contact with children;

 Using children as threats;
 Physical threats to other family members;
 Verbal insulting;
 Threats to kill;
 Intimidation;

 Restrictions on movement outside the home i.e. to visit own
family, talk to neighbours, etc;
 Forced to divorce/ separate;
 Abandoned to own parents.

 Other types of violence:
 Other traditional and cultural practices i.e. honour killings;
 Kidnapping;
 Attempted kidnapping,
 Trafficking.

Gender-based violence regional
overview
According to REPORTS fromWHO and UNDP :
 SOMALIA
 The Practice of FGM is almost universal. It is estimated
that 95-98% of women have been circumcised.
 Almost every girl in Somalia undergoes FGM.
 It has been estimated that 86% of all adult Somali
women are illiterate.
 Sexual and Gender-Based violence is not uncommon,
particularly in IDP Camps and most of the time against
women and girls of rival clans and those of minority
groups.

overview
Ethiopia
FGM
 Close to 90 percent of Ethiopian girls and women are
affected by FGM
Early Marriage
 41% of girls between the age of 15-19 are married.

overview
Rape
 A study from 2000 indicated that 2,263 women were raped
in that year.
 The study indicated that these are only the reported cases and
in all the cases perpetrators were close family members.
 In 2007/2008, 650 cases of Sexual, Gender BasedViolence
related to the post-election crisis in Kenya.
 Since 1998 in Eastern Congo (DRC) alone over 41,000
women were raped as a weapon of war and propagating HIV
to the enemy.

Consequences of GBV/SGBV
The consequences of GBV can be scattered into four main
aspects:
 1. Health
 2. Emotional, social and psychological
 3. Community and physical safety and security
 4. Legal/justice system

Health:
Individual consequences to the survivor:
 Depression, leading to chronic physical complaints and
illnesses.
 FGM, resulting in;
 Shock,
 Infection,
 Excessive bleeding or death, and
 Longer-term affects such as emotional damage, including anger,
fear, self-hate and confusion.

 Loss of desire for sex and painful sexual intercourse.
 Difficult pregnancy and labour, chronic pain and infection,
infertility.
 Injury, disability, or death. STIs and HIV/AIDS.
 Injury to the reproductive system including menstrual
disorders, infections, miscarriages, unwanted pregnancies,
unsafe abortions.
 Impact on wider society: Strain on medical system.

Emotional/Psychological:
Individual consequences to the survivor:
 Emotional damage including anger, fear and self-hate. Shame,
insecurity, loss of ability to function and carry out daily
activities.
 Feelings of depression and isolation.

 Problems sleeping and eating.
 Mental illness and thoughts of hopelessness and suicide.
 Judgments made about the survivor.
 Blaming the survivor.
 Treating the survivor as a social outcast.

Impact on wider society:
 Expensive, drain on community resources; family,
friends, schools, community leaders, social service
agencies, etc.
 Survivor unable to continue as contributing member of
society; unable to keep up with child care, unable to earn
an income.

Legal/Justice System
 Lack of access to legal system.
 Lack of knowledge of existing laws.
 Confusion regarding the most appropriate channels i.e.
criminal, traditional etc.
 Survivors reluctant to report due to heavy stigma attached to
sexual abuse.

 Strain on police/court resources already challenged and
overburdened.
 Lack of sensitivity to the issues expressed by judges and
polices forces.
 Costs incurred by the survivor.

Security, Physical Environment of the Community
 Survivor feels insecure, threatened, afraid, Climate of
fear and insecurity impacting women’s freedom and
perception of personal safety.
 Lack of female participation in the community life.
 Fear of going to school and work.

The case of an arranged marriage
(case study)

Gender-based violence and the
violation of women‘s human rights
Power
 Perpetrators can have “real” or “perceived” power.
 Some examples of different types of power and powerful
people:
1. Social – peer pressure, leaders, teachers, parents, etc.
2. Economic – the perpetrator controls money or access to
goods/services/money/favours; sometimes husband or
father.
3. Political – elected leaders, discriminatory laws.

3. Physical – strength, use of weapons, controlling access or
security; soldiers, local commanders, police, robbers, gangs,
mafia, etc.
4. Gender-based (social) – males are usually in a more
powerful position than females.
5. Age-related – often, in traditional societies status/power is
granted with age.
 Power is directly related to choice.The more power one has,
there are more choices available.

 The less power one has, fewer choices are available.
 Disempowered people have fewer choices and are therefore
more vulnerable to abuse.
 Gender-based violence involves the abuse of power.
 Unequal power relationships are exploited or abused.

Violence - use of force
“Force” might be;
1. Physical,
2. Emotional,
3. Social or
4. Economic in nature.
5. It may also involve coercion or pressure.

6. Force also includes intimidation, threats, persecution,
or other forms of psychological or social pressure.
 Target of such violence is compelled to behave as
expected or to do what is being requested, for fear of
real and harmful consequences.

 Violence consists of the use of physical force or other
means of coercion such as threat, inducement or promise
of a benefit to obtain something from a weaker or more
vulnerable person.
 Using violence involves forcing someone to do
something against her/his will - use of force.

Consent
 Consent means saying “yes,” agreeing to something.
 Informed consent means making an informed
choice freely and voluntarily by persons in an equal
power relationship.
 Acts of gender-based violence occur without
informed consent.
 Even if she says “yes,” this is not true consent because it
was said under pressure - the perpetrator(s) used some
kind of force to get her to say yes.

 Children (under age 18) in most countries are deemed
unable to give informed consent for acts such as
marriage, sexual relations, etc.

Root causes and contributing factors of
 What are the differences between root causes
and contributing factors of Gender-based
violence?

 Contributing factors are those that perpetuate
GBV/SGBV or increase risk of GBV eg
 Family,
 Community and
 State violence.
 Contributing factors do not cause GBV although they are
associated with some acts of GBV.
 These are predisposing factors

Some examples:
 Alcohol/drug abuse
 Is a contributing factor - but not all drunks/drug addicts beat their
wives or rape women.
 War, displacement, and the presence of armed combatants are
all contributing factors, but not all soldiers rape civilian women.
 Poverty is a contributing factor, but not all poor women are
victimized by forced prostitution or sexual exploitation.
 Many contributing factors can be eliminated or significantly
reduced through preventive activities.

The Impact of GBV on children in the
family
 The impact on children who witness violence against their
mothers and women in their extended family, and
interventions need to be in place to stop the cycle of violence
from becoming an inter-generational problem.
 Children, who repeatedly witness violence directed towards
their mothers and other female members, learn and
internalize perceptions such as:
 Mothers/girl child are not deserving of respect.
 Those who love you also hit and abuse you.

family
 It is socially, culturally, traditionally and morally acceptable to
use violence against female members of the family for control
and compliance purposes.
 Violence is an acceptable conflict resolution strategy.
 There are gender differences in the way children internalise the
violence they witness.
 Boys will learn behaviour in adult relationships that the use of
violence is acceptable.
 Girls as adults will tolerate the abuse because her mother and
other female members did.

family
 Children respond in different ways to the violence
experienced in their family environment.
 Possible emotional and behaviour effects could be:
 Loss of self esteem and self confidence.
 Insecurity, fear and vulnerability
 Being unable to openly discuss frustrations and problems.
 Poor anger management skills.
 Difficulty in trusting people.

family
 They may use violence to cope with their own stresses.
 They may suffer from depression.
 They may have school and other social difficulties i.e. poor concentration,
unable to learn.
 They may suffer from guilt, believing that they are the cause of the violence.
 Physical symptoms – bed wetting, acting out, eating disorders, self
harm/mutilation.
 Children who have lived in abusive family environments are often poor
achievers in school and have related learning difficulties.

family
 Do you see similarities in the way how women and children
react or respond to violence?
 How can/would you support children in such situations?

HUMAN SEXUALITY
 What is sexual identity?
 What is sexual orientation?

HUMAN SEXUALITY
 Sexual identity –
 A person’s assessment of erotic orientation, motional/romantic
preferences, inclinations to engage in sexual activities and often
social life.
 Sexual orientation –
 It depends. Some define as attractions, some as behavior, some
as identity and some as all three.
 We tend to view it as erotic preferences.

HUMAN SEXUALITY
 Human sexuality plays a major role in everyone's life.
 Whether we are young or old, man or woman,
African, American or Japanese, it is an integral part
of what we do and who we are.
 It takes up so much of our time in thought and
behavior that it sometimes seems that every facet of
our life revolves around this to a certain extent.

HUMAN SEXUALITY
 Animals are driven by a "force" to reproduce and
therefore partake in sexual behavior.
 Humans are not sexually active just for the sake
of reproduction, rather, there are a variety of
complex factors that lead people to have sex.

HUMAN SEXUALITY
 Human sexuality is the way in which we experience and
express ourselves as sexual beings (Rathus et al., 1993).
 Many factors help develop our sexuality,
 One of the most important, is our actual gender.
 A male or female will likely have a major influence
on the development of individual sexuality.
 Sexuality is an integral part of our personalities
whether we are aware of it or not.

Why study human sexuality?
 “Why do it?”
 “What do we hope to gain from it?"
An important reason to study human sexuality
is that it is a primary source of motivation.
 Just consider the amount of time spent
thinking and planning for sex, let alone the time
spent in sexual behavior itself (Rathus et al.,
1993).

Why study human sexuality?
Another reason for studying human sexuality is
that we may face various personal and social
problems involving sexuality,
Sexual identity distress
Sexually transmitted diseases,
Unwanted pregnancies, and
Sexual harassment (Aral & Holmes, 1991;
Rathus et al., 1993).

Bisexuality
 Bisexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or sexual
behavior toward both males and females.

“Intersex”
 “Intersex” is a general term used for a variety of
conditions in which a person is born with a
reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem
to fit the typical definitions of female or male.
 E.g a person might be born appearing to be
female on the outside, but having mostly male-
typical anatomy on the inside.

“Intersex”
 Or a person may be born with genitals that seem
to be in-between the usual male and female
types—for example, a girl may be born with a
noticeably large clitoris, or lacking a vaginal
opening, or a boy may be born with a notably
small penis, or with a scrotum that is divided so
that it has formed more like labia.

“Intersex”
 Or a person may be born with mosaic genetics, so that
some of her cells have XX chromosomes and some of
them have XY.
 Intersex anatomy doesn’t always show up at birth.
 Sometimes a person isn’t found to have intersex
anatomy until she or he reaches the age of puberty, or
finds himself an infertile adult, or dies of old age and is
autopsied.
 Some people live and die with intersex anatomy
without anyone (including themselves) ever knowing.

Transgender
 A person who does not identify with the sex (body) they
were assigned with at birth.

Respect for Transgender
1. Respect their gender identity.
Think of them as the gender they refer to themselves as and
refer to them with their chosen name and gender pronoun
(regardless of their physical appearance) from now on.

2. Watch your past tense.
 When talking of the past try not to use phrases
like "when you were a previous gender" or "born
a man/woman,"
Many transgender people feel they have always
been the gender they have come out to you as,
but had to hide it for whatever reasons- or at
least be aware of when you do it.
 Ask the transgender person how they would
like to be referred to in the past tense.

 Avoid referencing gender when talking about
the past by using other frames of reference, for
instance "Last year", "When you were a child",
"When you were in high school", etc.
 If you must reference the gender transition
when talking about the past, say "before you
shared your true gender", or "Before you began
transitioning" (if applicable).

3. Use language appropriate to the person's gender.
 Ask what pronouns the transgender person prefers to
have used in reference to them and respect that choice.
 E.g someone who identifies as a woman may prefer
feminine words and pronouns like she, her, actress,
waitress, etc.
 A person who identifies as a man may prefer masculine
terms like he, his, etc.

4. Don't be afraid to ask questions
 Some, but certainly not all transgender people will answer
questions related their identity / gender.
 Don't expect the transgender person to be your sole
educator, however.
 It is your responsibility to inform yourself.

 If a trans person doesn't feel comfortable answering your
question, don't try and "force it out of them.“
 Questions about genitalia, surgeries, and former names
should usually only be asked if you need to know in order to
provide medical care, are engaging in a sexual relationship
with the transgender person, or need the former name for
legal documentation.

5. Respect the transgender person's need for
privacy.
 Do not out them without express permission.
 Telling people you are transgender is a very difficult decision,
not made lightly.
 "Outing" them without their permission is a betrayal of trust
and could possibly cost you your relationship with them.
 It may also put them at risk, depending on the situation, of
losing a lot - or even being harmed.

 They will tell those they want to, if or when they are
ready.
 This advice is appropriate for those who are living full-
time or those who have not transitioned yet.
 For those living full-time in their proper gender role,
very many will not want anyone who did not know them
from before they transitioned to know them as any other
than their current, i.e. proper, gender.

6. Don't assume you know what the person's
experience is.
 There are many different ways in which differences in gender
identity are expressed.
 The idea of being "trapped in a man/woman's body", the
belief that trans women are hyper-feminine/trans men are
hyper-masculine, and the belief that all trans people will seek
hormones and surgery are all stereotypes that apply to some
people and not to others.
 Be guided by what the person tells you about their own
situation, and listen without preconceived notions.

 Do not impose theories you may have learned, or assume that
the experience of other trans people you may know or have
heard of is the same as that of the person in front of you.
 Don't assume that they are transitioning because of past
trauma in their lives, or that they are changing genders as a
way to escape from their bodies.

7. Begin to recognize the difference between gender
identity and sexuality.
 Do not assume that their gender correlates with their
sexuality - it doesn't.
 There are straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, questioning, and
asexual transgender people.
 If the person comes out to you about their sexual
orientation, use the terms they use.

8 Treat transgender persons the same.
 After you are well-informed, make sure you're not going
overboard.
 Transgender people have essentially the same personalities as
they did before coming out.
 Treat them as you would anybody else.

9. Patience, understanding, and a willingness to discuss
issues & these changes will bring about will help them through a
difficult and emotional time.
 It is best to ask open ended questions that allow the person to
share as much as they feel comfortable sharing.
 Examples:
 "How are things going?";
 "You looked stressed. Care to share?";
 "You look really happy.
 Something good happen?";
 "How can I help support you during these changes?";
 "I am all ears if there are things that wish to discuss."

JAPHETH MAKUNA
COUNSELLING OF ADOLESCENTS

 Adolescence is the stage of transition from childhood to
adulthood, in which considerable physical and
mental changes take place.
 It usually occurs between the ages of 10 and 19 years.
 Physical change that occurs during this time is known as
puberty.


 Because of puberty, teenagers may often feel
oversensitive and lack self-confidence as they come to
terms with the changes they are going through.
 Mood swings and shyness are some of the most
common features associated with adolescence.
 It is a period of vulnerability for the teenager,
requiring support and understanding.

 Teenagers often find their independence by making friends
and widening their social circle.
 As they begin to carve out an identity, they become more
susceptible to their friend's influences.
 In general, this is a healthy process that enables the
teenager to find a niche outside of the family environment.
 But occasionally peer pressure may lead to situations that
need parental or professional guidance.

 If you have teenagers coming to you for advice, you
know the difficulty that comes with teen counseling.
 The following tips are aimed at giving you practical
methods and things to consider regarding your approach
to counseling teenagers.

 Listen and reflect -
 Many times when teenagers come to us for counseling,
we immediately feel as though we have words of
wisdom that we need to impart.
 Instead of being quick to share, make sure you are
listening and really internalizing what they're saying.
 In order to ensure this, ask questions such as: "So
what I hear you're saying is..."

 Never judge -
 The adolescent that you're working with has a really
good antenna for knowing if you're looking down
upon them and judging them.
 To fight against this, tell yourself that although you
may not be engaged in their mistakes, that does not
mean that you are exempt from your own personal
"cheese" or flaws.

 Don't over identify -
 There is a danger of trying to match teenagers experience by
experience in order to gain credibility.
 This is a common mistake.
 It becomes a temptation as you move further from
adolescence, but it takes away from the counseling process.
 Don't feel like you have to have or share a similar experience
to help them.

 If you do happen to have one, avoid the temptation of telling
the whole story.
 For instance, if you've struggled with an eating disorder, don't
feel like you have to launch in to the whole story.
 Rather, say something like, "I might know what you're feeling
like because I've been through a similar situation in life."This
opens the door if they want to hear more, but if they don't ask,
don't keep going.

 Differentiating between danger and drama -
 When you work with adolescents, especially young adolescents,
it is very important to know the difference between real danger
and drama.
 Thus, until you know the difference, always assume real,
plausible danger.
 Only if you know the adolescent really well for an extended
period of time and you realize they are overdramatic can you
begin to play a little less attention to the crisis.
 Because you also may not be equipped to know the difference,
have someone that you can call (professional) that is trustworthy
and can give you discernment advice.

 Remember that adolescents are characterized by black and white
thinking (stream thinking) -
 When problems occur, adolescents may go to extreme thinking
and automatically assume that this is the worst problem ever.
 How do we help black and white thinking?Ask questions like
this:
 "Do you always think it will always be this way?“
 "Can you think of a time when it isn't this bad?"
 "Is it so bad?“
 In asking these questions, we are trying to help the adolescent move to
the middle.

 "What would you like to have happen?"
 "What would you like to see different?" -
 Either is a magical question in the counseling world.
 The second prong is - "Can you tell me about a time lately
when the problem was less of a problem?"
 All of these questions come out of a field of grief counseling.
 It reminds people that change is reachable and possible.
 It reduces some of the drama and black and white thinking.

 Consider secondary gains -
 This refers to the payoff for everything that we do.
 In the counseling situation, ask yourself what this adolescent
gains from this crisis? Some include:
 1)Attention;
 2) Getting out of stuff, i.e. work;
 3)Trying to get close to you.
 We have to be thinking about what the adolescent is getting.
 Do you notice any secondary gains that the adolescent might be gaining
by or from the crises?
 Are we secretly, without meaning to, enforcing problem or acting-out
behavior?

 Activate their family system -
 This is one that we often forget.
 In the vast majority of cases, the family system wants to help.
 Thus, first and foremost - are they aware that a situation is going
on?
 This does not mean that you run to the parent every time the
adolescent comes to you with a problem.

 The key is whether or not you can have a general discussion
with the parent.
 It is also important to try and get permission from the
adolescent although there are certain things (e.g. drugs, alcohol,
and danger to self) that might be important to bypass the
student's desires not to tell their parents.
 Breach of confidentiality may be appropriate.
 Here's what you say, "I will do my best to keep this conversation private,
but I'll tell anyone and everyone I have to in order to keep you safe."
 We have created a mental image of a net that they can fall into.

 Less is more,as long as it is frequent -
 Don't use long sessions with adolescents.
 With adults, we typically go 45-50 minutes because they can
handle being loosened (the clinical term); however, adolescents
do not.
 They can go for hours, but you cease to be helpful after you
hear it multiple times.
 If you go into three hour sessions, most of the time, the
adolescent is no better off.
 Have a 45 minute session and then make an appointment for the
next day.

 Adolescent ego boundaries do not allow the adolescent to have
long conversations that help.
 There may be an exception for adolescent girls, however.
 Usually they need to talk it through two or three times.
 Anymore than that in one sitting is no longer helpful.
 As far as adolescent guys, if you get it through them once,
you've done you're job.
 Nevertheless, still make smaller conversation over longer
periods of time.

 Small talk matters -
 Finding little things to talk to adolescents about are essential.
 Knowing their schedules, interests, what's going on in their
lives - all of this matters.
 It lowers resistance and it makes them feel connected.
 You must have something to talk to them about beyond their
problem.

 When in doubt,refer -
 Refer, refer, refer.
 In your list of contacts, keep these people –
 1) a good adolescent counselor (somebody that gets it, who
knows how to talk to adolescents and their parents);
 2) a good doctor;
 3) a good psychiatrist (we are seeing more and more adolescent
bipolar problems, anxiety, and depression; and
 4) Child protective services in your area.

EFFECTIVE COUNSELLING METHODS
 Counselling is a professional service offered to a client who
needs help to solve a problem, make a decision or even to
understand him/herself better.
 The counsellor and the client develop a relationship where
confidentiality is crucial.
 Some problems/issues discussed during counselling may be
intimate/sensitive e.g. financial constraints, stealing and
cheating habits; while other issues discussed are general e.g.
choosing careers and preventing diseases.
 Due to the nature of the issues/problems being solved,
individual or group counselling is used.

Types of counselling
 OBJECTIVES
 By the end of this lesson you should be able to;
1. Define (i) individual counselling
1. (ii) group counselling and
2. Explain when each of these two types of counselling may
be used.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
counselling.
4. Describe the factors to consider when forming the
counselling group.

INDIVIDUAL COUNSELLING
 Counselling is characterized by certain features that mark it
as the focal point of the guidance programme:
1. It is a purposeful learning experience for the counsellee;
2. It is a private interview between the counsellor and the
counsellee; and
3. It is a one-to-one relationship, a relationship predicated
upon the mutual confidence of the parties concerned and
growing out of the counselee's recognition of an existing
need for assistance, and the presence in the school of an
adult who is prepared to provide the desired assistance.

 Frequently pupils require skilled aid in evaluating personal
potentialities against a background of knowledge about the
requirements and opportunities inherent in an area of choice.
 Counselling alone provides a medium through which the
pupil may be assisted to recognize and evaluate the many
factors upon which decisive and intelligent action hinges.
 Each individual is unique.
 His/her assets and limitations are so peculiarly personal that
he/she cannot be given proper assistance to plan for realistic
goals except on an individual basis.

 Many of the decisions of pupils are highly personal in nature;
and most of them require private, individualized assistance.
 Some individuals have concerns and problems, which are
unique; others need individual support in coming to a
realization that their concerns and problems are not unique.
 Group counselling opens the door to individual counselling,
by giving the student a sense of security in knowing there is
an understanding person with whom he/she may talk, and by
giving him/her hope that he/she may be guided to solutions
of his/her problems along paths he/she has not explored.

 Most students seeking individual help have a fear of exposing their
concerns to anyone other than a mature person in whom they have
confidence.
 This person may be the teacher counsellor or another staff
member.
 They are particularly afraid to have their peers know of their
insecurity.
 For this reason, individual counselling must be treated with
confidentiality, the student and counsellor should be alone for
their conversation, and the student should have the assurance that
no part of it will be shared with a third person without his/her
knowledge and consent.

 The student prefers to share with someone with whom
he/she is not so emotionally involved.
 The counsellor must be alert to those problems that may
require the professional help of a doctor, a psychologist, a
psychiatrist, or a social worker.
 The ability to make wise referrals is a competency, which
every conscientious counsellor will want to develop.

 When a counsellor can plan time for it, he/she will find that
routine “getting acquainted” sessions with all students will
help him/her to spot those students who may need individual
counselling, but who would be most reluctant to seek it on
their own initiative.

Goals of Individual Counselling
 The same goals as group counseling.
1. To provide needed information,
2. To help students understand themselves and their role in
society,
3. To help them develop a base for problem-solving and
decision-making, and
4. To accept the responsibility for their solutions and
decisions.

Esns 301 guidance&counselling;Makuna Pwani University

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