1. Introduction
This study will examine the exclusion of African-Americans from participation in soccer
from youth levels in the United States. This study is also designed to expound upon various
reasons that lead or contribute to the lack of participation from the above demographic group.
This study is an examination of the disparity of African-American participation in United States
Soccer. Many arguments have been made about a diverse multitude of factors regarding why
participation is limited in this country ranging from lack of funds, wavering interest, limited
space for competition, and more importantly a perceived cultural insignificance of individuals
from African descent towards the game of soccer.
Part of this problem can be defined by the terms Manifest Destiny, post-modernism, and
institutional racism which has diseased this country since its inception. Manifest Destiny is
defined by most as the “God given right of Europeans, in particular Caucasians to conquer the
United States and world to spread their values and idealologies.” The phrase Manifest Destiny
was first used by the American journalist and diplomat John Louis O'Sullivan, in an editorial
supporting the annexation of Texas. It seemed a strong sense of nationalism as well as pride for
the territory of Texas as “White Nation” who just won a war caused the popular phrase the
“Lone Star State” and the notion to conquer the rest of the southwest due to white privilege. The
term post-modernism is a derivative from modernist thought where the notion of universal truth
is rejected and stresses meaning is in appearance and interpretation creating new versions of 19th
century concepts and idealologies. Institutional racism is a form of racism which specifically
occurs within institutions such as corporations, universities, and sport entities. Using these terms
in context with this study one can possible make the correlation that these are underlying factors

2. for the disparity of African-Americans participating in soccer in the United States. Baseball,
basketball, and football which are considered to be the main sports in this society all have been
through periods of segregation and integration ultimately leading to the loss of power on the
playing field by Caucasians who were the majority. Prior to the 1988 Super Bowl CBS
sportscaster Jimmy “the Greek” was asked why did the National Football League (NFL) have a
disproportionately large number of African-American players and very few in coaching or
management responding “Blacks are so much better athletes than Whites they already dominate
the playing positions, if they took over the coaching there would be nothing for whites to do.”
(Cohen) In correlation with my purpose which is examine the disparity of African-Americans
participating in youth soccer in the United States this example can demonstrate a possible
perceived inferiority to African-Americans in sport due to the post-modernization of the popular
sports in American culture (baseball, basketball, football) after racial integration.
Baseball, basketball, and football all experienced an escalation in viewership, revenue,
and flow of game-play by integrating specific styles synonymous with the versions individuals of
African descent either invented or made mainstream. Many of these concepts have been
integrated to the point where the originators receive no credit and they are just though to be part
of the game. Negro League baseball employed a spirited attacking style of play which
emphasized putting pressure on the defense through the use of bunting, hit and run style, and
base stealing. Legendary league organizer Rude Foster stated “ You don’t have to get two or
three hits for me every day” (Rogosin) referring to the fact that it was well known that due to the
speed of the Negro Leagues often times runs would be scored without hits emphasizing a
distinct style of play. Many also speculate that Negro League great Josh Gibson, former catcher
of the Homestead Gray’s and Pittsburgh Crawford’s invented throwing to catch base runners

3. from his knees because he had no time to stand and throw due to the speed of the game.
Basketball experienced transformation after integration with the game evolving form the more
team orientated concepts designed by American basketball icon John Naismith. Naismith’s
version of the game incorporated long passes, little or no dribbling, and the use of the backboard
while shooting set shots. The jump shot slam dunk, fast break, and individual rapid dribbling are
all bi-products of African-American inner-city play which was usually free in structure
encouraging individual dynamics associated with the game of basketball.
Football introduced the forward pass, cut back run, and deep passes more affectionately
known as “long bombs” to take advantage of a faster style of play and incorporate the talents of
the minority players slowly integrating the sport. There have even been scientific studies done on
the competencies of Blacks and Whites in sporting context. In the early seventies study
researchers Worthy and Markle made a hypothesis based on social bias and media representation
of African-Americans in sport. Their study hypothesized that White athletes were superior at self
paced sport activities such as pitching, shooting free throws, with a possible inference to playing
quarterback. Contrary to this, Black athletes were expected to excel in reactive sport activities
such as hitting a baseball and shooting a jump shot in basketball. The study concluded that
Blacks were superior at hitting baseballs and Whites superior at shooting free throws but the
researchers were quoted on several occasions stating “ contrary to out belief, Black pitchers
were more successful than Whites in this study.” (Hochner, Jones) With the initial hypothesis
being one that suggested racial superiority ascertaining movement versus thinking which could
lead to bias in other spectrums of society I think it is safe to assume that both researchers think
Black athletes are superior to White athletes especially in so called reactive sport activities such
as soccer. These above examples illustrate how the perception of superiority in sport by African-

4. Americans lead to an intentional exclusion in soccer due to a need to provide a sporting
opportunity White Americans can still consider themselves dominate in to fulfill a mentality
fueled by Manifest destiny.
The evidence presented above also impacted the limitations or uncontrollable
influence on this fairly ground breaking study. As the principle investigator in this study
the research limitations will be defined as no clear determination of intentional exclusion,
lack of pertinent research on subject matter relating to African-Americans in soccer,
perceived lack of interest in the sport, and no highly marketable professional league to
showcase African-Americans in roles of players, management, and ownership. More than
once the United States has tried to create a top flight professional soccer league
comparable to similar rival leagues in Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa. The
current professional league in America, Major League Soccer was conceptualized in 1993
to increase marketing efforts in regards to hosting the 1994 World Cup, the world
tournament of soccer held every four years governed by its global governing body, FIFA.
In 2007, D.C. United, a Major League Soccer franchise based in Washington, D.C. was
purchased by D.C. United Holdings, LLC and majority investor Victor MacFarlane
making the club the first minority owned franchise in Major League Soccer and
professional sports in America. MacFarlane, who is owner and founder of MacFarlane
Partners, the nations largest African-American owned real estate management and
development company orchestrated this $33 million dollar which was the largest sum
ever paid for rights to a Major League Soccer franchise. Other minority owners include
former Duke University basketball standout Brian Davis and William Chang, Chinese-
American businessmen who is also a minority investor with the San Francisco Giants of

5. Major League Baseball. MacFarlane stated “I am not only proud to assume ownership of
a premiere soccer team in the United States, but to do so as an African-
American.”(Wagman) MacFarlane is currently in the process of building a soccer specific
stadium which will also host multiple other activities on the dilapidated Anacostia River
Front to revitalize business in this largely African-American section of the city.
Although advancements such as the ownership group headed by Victor
MacFarlane and success of African-American players on the United States National
Team there is still a large disparity of minorities participating in American soccer. There
are many theoretical ideas behind this lack of participation but this study will focus
primarily on the factors of lack of highly visible role models, decreased opportunities to
play in inner-city communities, and most importantly the style of soccer played in this
country lacks an artistic and creative flair which is a primary reason the game has not
vaulted to the fore front of the modern sports scene in America and has not caught the
attention of the youth. These variables helped develop the delimitations of the study
which have narrowed the research question pertaining to the exclusion of African-
American youth in United States soccer.
The delimitations imposed by the researcher are conceptualizing the game of
soccer from the standpoint that if a true history of the game where taught which included
prominent footballers from African descent the youth would have recognizable global
figures to use as role models for on field success and the use of the Brazilian National
team as a model to develop the origins of an Afro centric style of play originating in
Angola prior to the Trans-Atlantic Triangle Slave Trade. Brazilian soccer is known for its
artistic, attacking style which employs short quick passes and intricate movements which

6. create a fast paced high action game. The Brazilians have won the most World Cups (5)
of any competing nation and are often recognized as the world’s top team. By using these
innovative delimitations the researcher hopes to inspire African-Americans by showing
that some historical origins of soccer were developed in the home continent, Africa, the
top recognized national team in the world Brazil has had numerous Afro-Brazilians
become icons in the country including Pele` who is recognized as the best soccer player
ever, and that there is a different alternative to the game of soccer instead of the
American version which lacks ineffectiveness in global competition. If administered
correctly, these delimitations can not only post-modernize the game of soccer in the
United States by using the “Samba” style made famous by the Brazilians or a national
derivative but can eradicate the perception that soccer is relegated to suburban America.
Currently the United States National Team has five regular starters of African
descent who play positions ranging from defensive back, mid-field, and striker which
indicates little evidence of stacking which is centrally placing individuals specifically to
certain positions with regards to race. The Women’s National team featured Brianna
Scurry, a regular fixture at goal-keeper who is most notably known for her over-time save
against China in the 1999 women’s World Cup Final resulting in the United States first
women’s world soccer championship. Although the make up of the men’s national team
has made significant improvements with additions of players from African, Asian, and
Polynesian backgrounds the style of play employed by the team still lacks in complexity
compared to other countries who rank consistently in the FIFA Top 20 Rankings. One of
the African-American fixtures on the Men’s National Team, Eddie Johnson has showed
flashes of brilliance in using this style but his signature has been implementing elements

7. of a more freestyle version traditionally used in all sports including soccer by youth who
congregate to play without instruction. Johnson, who is from Florida grew up playing
multiple sports but settled on soccer after learning the worlds greatest recognized player,
Pele` was of African descent through a grade school book report. With his meteoric rise
on the national soccer scene Johnson was able to infuse a different style to the striker
position ultimately landing himself a multi-million dollar contract with Fulham of the
English premier League. In a telephone interview Johnson stated “I want kids in the inner
city who grow up around basketball and football to know that’s not the only way out in
the sports world.” (Longman) Former national team defensemen Eddie Pope, who is
African-American believes that a historical approach should be implemented to
encourage Black youth to participate in this world game. Pope has sent videos of the U.S.
National Team from the previous World Cup along with footage of prominent teams such
as Nigeria, Cameroon, and Ghana who feature all Black squads to children to
demonstrate an African presence to be emulated. Pope also wants African-Americans to
learn their heritage and adamantly speaks to children informing them that the country of
origin for this demographic group, Africa, the major sport is soccer. To clearly define this
style this research will educate the reader on its conceptual foundations which originate
in Angola, West Africa and culminated in Brazil through the Trans-Atlantic Triangle
Slave Trade.
Historical Origins
The game of soccer has several origins which stem from many different continents and
cultures. Native Americans played a version of soccer called pasuckuakohowog which means
“they gather to play ball with the foot.” This game was played on beaches measured a half a mile

8. wide with goals one mile apart with one thousand people playing at a time. These games were
very ceremonial in nature with players dressed in war paint carrying weapons often depicting
war. After a day of playing which resulted in numerous injuries there was often a celebratory
feast to culminate the ceremonial game. Ancient Egyptians linked the game of soccer to fertility
rituals but most associate the current game with its roots in English culture.
During the reign of King Edward in England (1307-1327) laws were passed to outlaw the
game the game due to its violent nature. At this time soccer was known as a peasant’s game
which usually ended in fights between the different mobs who participated. Penalties for playing
soccer included a week in jail followed up by church penance or flogging. While these versions
of the game are very popular throughout the world the origins of the style found in Brazil to
enhance the participation of African-Americans in United States soccer. The country of Angola
situated in West Africa bordering Namibia, The Central Republic of the Congo, Zambia, and the
Atlantic Ocean. Until the early 1960’s Angola pronounced “Ngola” was a Portuguese colony
which sent over 1 million slaves to the Portuguese colony Brazil. Unlike slavery in the Americas
which was based on racial superiority and instituted practices such as punishment for reading,
speaking native language, and performing rituals such as dancing and playing the drum
Portuguese slavers kept slaves in groups based on indigenous region, allowed use of native
tongue, and had no problems with allowing education amongst slaves. This was done purely in
an effort to increase work production and moral amongst the enslaved Africans. With the ability
to retain their native ways Angolan slaves implemented cultural influence on many facets of
Brazilian life most notable in the areas of soccer and the martial art form caper.
Capoeira or Ngolo is translated to “Dance of the Zebras” is an Angolan martial art meant
to mimic the fighting patterns of zebras was brought to Brazil by Angolan slaves who disguised

9. the martial art as a dance to not gain attention from slave overseers and masters who would have
perceived this as an act of rebellion. The dancing associated with the martial art capoeira is also
correlated with the short quick rhythm which makes up the “samba” style of play which is a
signature of Brazilian soccer. The use of colorful nicknames is also linked directly to the
Angolan slaves who after slavery were abolished counted approximately over 1 million in
numbers.
Due to the inability to transfer many native African words to Portuguese which lead to
high rates of illiteracy the Angolan slaves tended to call each other by their first name or a
combination of the first name and region where they are from fro example slaves went by names
such as Joa or Joa Congo. The use of first names in Brazilian society is also an indicator of class
and a symbol of intimacy. The first Brazilian to sport a nickname on his uniform also called a kit
was Formiga, which is Portuguese for “little ant”. While seventeen of the twenty-three current
players on the Brazilian National Team wear monikers on their jerseys it is traditional for
nicknames to be given to goal scorers. “The most famous soccer forward in the world, Edson
Arantes do Nascimento is better known as Pele`” (Schulz) clearly demonstrates the African
presence in Brazilian culture which has permeated all facets of this countries soccer identity.
Literature Review
The review of literature associated with this research sample draws on scholarly and
social journals to present evidence to support ideas associated with the lack of participation of
African-American youth in United States soccer. Articles can be classified into categories that
indicate either social or racial problems surrounding the central theme of Black participation in

10. American soccer. Below the reader will be allowed the opportunity to dissect pertinent sources
relating to this phenomenon
Social Constraints
Nick Schulz article on Brazilian soccer players and their choice of names provides a
helpful insight on the single name system used by players instead of the traditional surname
format used in the Western world. This article also demonstrates the African presence associated
with this process which dates back to slavery.
In this Robert Wagman article which details the first minority owner in Major League
Soccer, Victor MacFarlane, readers can see the struggle to promote the game of soccer in the
United States by the use of soccer specific stadiums. These stadiums potentially can boost ratings
and market share as well as bring new faces including minorities to the game of soccer.
This article written by Grant Wahl discusses the youth soccer system in the United States
and its lack of diversity partly due to high cost associated with the fees of participating in a youth
soccer program. To provide opportunities for minorities companies have sponsored teams in
certain parts of the state to offset the high cost associated with youth league soccer.
Timothy Williams’s article looks at youth soccer in Harlem and the many needs
associated with fielding a team here. These issues range from raising funds to build a field for
steady play. Major League Soccer has contributed funds to the success of the Harlem FC Lions.
A major component associated with this group is play which they hope to increase visibility of
the sport in the Harlem community.

11. This article by Frank Dell`Apa profiles America’s first Black prominent footballer Giles
Heron and his struggles to find acceptance in the soccer community without a professional
league operating in the United States.
In this Jack Bell article Ray Burse Jr., a African-American developmental player in
Major League Soccer who is currently still in college. Burse, who is African-American,
recollects how the perception of the sport does not appeal to Blacks along with the slowed style
of play associated with American soccer.
Clemente Lisi’s piece relates to the struggle soccer has to gain acceptance in the African-
American community. Profiling prominent members of the current U.S. National Team the
author attempts to develop a home grown identity involving soccer with a marketable face to
take the game into the inner-city.
Sandra Collins talks about the failure of soccer in U.S. society which needs its
professional league to increase its fan base to generate revenues comparable enough to
effectively market in the same circles as baseball, basketball, and football which are competition.
The article written by Jerry Longman infers the changes taking place on the U.S. National
Team with at least four prominent African-Americans consistently in the starting rotation. The
article also references the need to include racial minorities in youth soccer programs and elite
traveling teams which the National Team selects its players from.
Steven wells article profiles the Anderson Monarchs, an all female African-American
soccer team from inner-city Philadelphia. Despite not having resources such as a steady home
field for practice and games the Monarchs. The team was initially founded for boys but after

12. initial success the boys left the sport and most of their little sisters or female relatives took up
soccer and have been dominate against teams that are older and have played together for years.
Eric Horchy’s piece depicts the need to introduce soccer to the African-American
community which is being facilitated by a benefit game to raise money and awareness to the lack
of participation of African-Americans in United States soccer. The initial fundraiser for this
event is expected to be repeatedly weekly to raise interest levels of African-Americans in the
Tampa Bay, Florida area.
Racial Constraints
Steven Wells’s piece on the racial divide in American soccer evokes images of
segregation and perceived inferiority to African-Americans in sport. The article states that many
parents of White suburban children feel Black children play to rough, intimidate their children by
playing loud rap music, and put their children in danger by playing on fields that are not pristine
in makeup.
John Hoberman’s exert gives insight to racial discrimination geared towards players of
African descent. The article also illustrates the opinions of European sport figures toward
successful sport figures or teams of African descent.
This article by Dunn and Lupfer supports racist ideal logy that White Americans are more
physically disposed to participate in soccer. This study could possible indicate researchers need
to legitimize the game of soccer specifically for White Americans to maintain racial purity in the
sport and prevent desegregation similar to what has occurred in baseball, basketball, and football.

13. The article by Jensen and Sosa stresses building positive relationships between Hispanic
audiences and Major League Soccer franchises. Even though this study examines the lack of
participation of African-Americans in United States soccer looking at the Hispanic-American
demographic can provide insight towards the goal of increasing participation of minorities in all
phases of American soccer.
These sources listed above give a brief synopsis of the literature review used to develop
logic and reasoning behind the perceived exclusion of African-Americans from United States
soccer. While most of the literature supports social and racial factors that lead to the miniscule
participation levels of African-Americans in soccer other variables such as perception of soccer
in the minority community, lack of central role models in soccer, and decreased market power by
American professional organizations all are integral factors which assist in answering the
dilemma of lack of African-American participation in American youth soccer.
Methodology
The methods used throughout this research paper should present a clear and concise
argument that there are many factors, both external and internal that leads to the disparity in
participation of African-Americans in United States soccer. One external factor which heavily
contributes to lack of participation is the style of play used in this country which is unappealing
to minority youth. This style of play also affects the fan base of Major League Soccer which
“continues to struggle despite their anticipated market potential.”(Collins) While Major League
Soccer has shown growth from its Hispanic market the league still continues to lack the
resources to effectively market and advertise consistently on major television stations due to lack

14. of funds. Marketers have suggested that American soccer needs a specific face and identity to
showcase the league as a competitive alternative to traditional American sporting options
(baseball, basketball, football). This concept is similar to models used by the National Basketball
Association (NBA) and National Hockey League (NHL) during periods of decreased
spectatorship. During the mid 1980’s hockey in America was losing market share specifically in
strategic places like Southern California. The Southern California market currently host teams in
multiple leagues ranging from professional basketball, baseball, soccer, and hockey. To remedy
this problem the Los Angeles Kings traded for superstar Wayne Gretzky and saw a significant
boost in ratings, sponsorships, and apparel sales. A similar scenario occurred in professional
basketball during the late 60’s when the league was known for rampant violence and drug use.
These internal problems caused the NBA to contend with an upstart professional basketball
league, the American Basketball Association (ABA). The ABA attempted to post-modernize the
game by added features that played to the crowd such as the 30 second shot clock which put a
premium on fast defensive play, the three point line which expanded defenses and allowed for
high flying ariel attacks at the rim, and the use of a multi-colored ball for fan amusement.
The ABA also featured prominent African-American figures that either spurned the NBA
or were rejected due to the style of play used by many African-American players at this time.
Players were even encouraged to use nicknames which evoked memories of childhood leisure
play and gave the game a free flowing open style which differed from the structured style of play
used in the NBA. These nicknames also evoked a sense of racial unity stemming from the
affinity to use nicknames as a cultural distinction. (Schulz) Players like George “Da Ice Man”
Gervin and Julius “Dr. J” Irving were well known for their high flying antics and eventually
became icons in the NBA after merging with the ABA in 1976. Similar to professional basketball

15. and hockey American soccer needs a recognizable face to not only stimulate growth of the sport
but to become a national ambassador to youth of all ethnic groups in particular African-
Americans who for various reasons participate in disproportionate numbers in this country
especially pertaining to youth soccer. While players have achieved small amounts of success
sparingly on the youth, collegiate, and professional levels most don’t due to the expensive nature
of the sport and lack of resources to play. Ray Burse Jr., an African-American goalie in the MLS
developmental league stated “in the States, the game is seen as a White sport and Black people
tend to shy away from sports like that.” (Bell) While Burse may have some validity to his
statements pioneering achievements by former players of African descent could also stimulate
interest. Giles Heron, a Jamaican born naturalized U.S. citizen played professional soccer in the
United States during the 1940’s and was often called offside due to his amazing speed. Heron
was also criticized because of a perceived mental ability to “lack resource when challenged”
(Dell Apa) which is an inference to mental ability of individuals of African descent and in the
prominent future resulted in the labeling of African players as mentally incapable resulting in
stacking. Sport in general has often found ways to eliminate methods such as stacking and has on
several occasions “provided a platform for Black athletes to demand racial reform in the larger
societies of which they are a part of.” (Hoberman)
Victor MacFarlane is trying to foresee this vision of racial reform in soccer and has
become the first minority owner of a professional sports entity in the United States with his
purchase of the D.C. United soccer club. “Major League Soccer is one of the fastest growing
sports in America” (Wagman) which he plans to capitalize on with the expected construction of a
soccer specific stadium in Washington, D.C. While MacFarlane has transformed the ownership
ranks others are doing their share to integrate the game on a racial and gender basis.

16. The Anderson Monarchs are an all African-American youth soccer team based out of
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Monarchs are also an all girls team who compete against older
competition and rarely play home games due to lack of a regulation soccer field. John Thomas,
the United States Youth Soccer Assistant Director of Coaching was quoted “I have never come
across an all African-American girls traveling team in all his travels” (Wells). The Monarchs not
only travel but have finished the last few years undefeated which is a testament to their creative
style of play. Monarch coaches often show videos of prominent soccer stars of African descent
including Brazilian star Ronaldinho to illustrate free play and dispel the myth that people of
African descent do not play soccer. The Monarchs are also known for their innovative passing
style which emulates Latin American and African squads. Using training techniques such as
futsal, an indoor soccer game played with five opponents to a side and implementing intricate
moves such as passing in small spaces have helped the Monarchs control the ball which moves
much slower on the pitch (field). The use of a smaller ball also trains the eyes and puts emphasis
on improvisation and creativity. Implementing this training style national could ultimately assist
in the creation of a national face to elevate the game of soccer in this country.
Other groups such as the Black Soccer Coaches Committee and Soccer in the Streets
have provided opportunities to increase the numbers of African-Americans participating in youth
soccer but without marketing and a recognizable face to emulate change have been stagnate.
While comprising this data many different variables have been listed that potentially affect the
participation of African-American youth in United States Soccer more field work must be
completed to develop strategies to increase this involvement from a community level to draw
national attention to this problematic epidemic.

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