What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations ABSTRACT Public relations remains a popular major at the undergraduate level; faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entrylevel employment ads in public relations as a way to understand what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted. Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence. This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media strategy, and data collection.

1. Public Relations Education
Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
Journal of
JPRE
Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018
A publication of the Public Relations Division of AEJMC
ISSN 2573-1742

2. Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018
A publication of the Public Relations Division of AEJMC
ISSN 2573-1742
© Copyright 2018 AEJMC Public Relations Division
Journal of Public Relations Education
Editorial Staff
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University, editor-in-chief
Tiffany Gallicano, University of North Carolina at Charlotte,
senior associate editor
Lucinda Austin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
associate editor
Chuck Lubbers, University of South Dakota, associate editor of reviews
Kathleen Stansberry, Elon University, web manager
Note from the Editor-in-Chief:
In this issue, you will find three research articles, all five of the top
AEJMC PR Division’s Great Ideas For Teaching presented in Washington,
D.C., and two reviews by Matt Kushin, which relate to one another on the
topic of teaching social media.
Volume 4, Issue 2 reflects an incredible amount of work done prior to
my editorship. The previous editor-in-chief, Chuck Lubbers, handled the
review assignments for each of the research articles for this issue prior to
me moving into this role on Jan. 1, 2018, and two of them were accepted
for publication under his tenure in 2017. The first acceptance letter I was
honored to send as the editor went to Drs. Brunner, Zarkin and Yates. A
special thanks to Chuck for his work with authors and reviewers to get us
ready for Volume 4.
Thank you to Tiffany, Lucinda, Chuck and Katie, who have invested
countless unpaid hours proofreading, editing and formatting this issue.
Without your service, this issue would not exist. Special thanks go to
Rebekah Grome, who also came to our aid with proofreading.

3. Table of Contents
Research Articles
1-20
21-50 What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A
Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public
Relations
Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
51-86 Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best
Teaching Briefs
PRD GIFT Winners from AEJMC 2018
87-98 Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to
Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities
Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky,
& Amber L. Hutchins
99-106 Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation
Assignment
Laura E. Willis

4. Teaching Briefs (continued)
PRD GIFT Winners from AEJMC 2018
107-114 Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy
Leslie Rasmussen
115-122 Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling
Chris Cooney
123-127 Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching
Ethics in PR
Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Reviews
128-133 Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and
Marketing
Matthew J. Kushin
134-145 Meltwater Media Intelligence Software
Matthew J. Kushin

5. What do Employers Want? What Should
Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of
Entry-Level Employment Ads
in Public Relations
Brigitta R. Brunner
1
, Auburn University
Kim Zarkin, Westminster College
Bradford L. Yates, University of West Georgia
Abstract
Publicrelationsremainsapopularmajorattheundergraduatelevel;
faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their
students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entry-
level employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A
content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the
Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted.
Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not
only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such
as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In
addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that
future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although
many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to
have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the
authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence.
This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called
the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics
and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media
strategy, and data collection.
Keywords: competition; public relations; employment ads; hard
skills; soft skills; manager’s apprentice
Public relations programs educate students with specific careers
in mind and often make curricular decisions according to perceptions of
industry best practices. To stay informed about best practices, programs
Journal of Public Relations Education
2018, Vol. 4, No. 2, 21-50
1
We would like to thank our research assistants, Stephanie Held and
Natalie Sands, for their help with this project.

6. 22
often form professional advisory boards and urge faculty to be active in
professional networking organizations, read trade publications, and follow
industry blogs. Students are encouraged, if not required, to complete
internships, and assessment reports may include employment data as a
marker of meeting learning goals. Regardless of methods, staying current
with what students will need to be successful is often a high priority
for programs large and small. As the industry rapidly changes due to
technology and other factors, not only are practitioners hard at work to
develop ways to implement these changes into their strategies and tactics,
but educators, too, are working to redevelop course content and topics
(Commission on Public Relations Education, 2015).
Graduates entering the field of public relations come from a wide
range of programs. Some have entire majors devoted specifically to public
relations (e.g., Syracuse University, University of Florida, University of
Georgia); some have tracks or emphases focused on public relations (e.g.,
Austin Peay State University, East Tennessee State University, Fisher
College). Still, others have just a few course options within a broad-
based communication degree (e.g., Mercer University, Southern Arkansas
University, Troy University).
Graduates from all of these types of programs commonly seek
the same entry-level positions in public relations. Despite program
size or accreditation status, it is important for all to understand what
employers want and expect in new employees. This research explores
entry-level employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
which skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A content
analysis of entry-level employment ads can provide insight into what the
industry desires in a new employee, which could be useful as programs
contemplate curriculum for public relations classes and programs.
Employee Roles
When the topics of employment and job opportunities are
introduced to students, discussions of the roles of technician and manager
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

7. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 23
often ensue based upon the content of introductory public relations texts
(e.g., Wilcox, Cameron, & Reber, 2015). Research about public relations
roles was first conducted by Broom and Smith (1979) and was refined and
expanded with the work of Broom (1982), Dozier (1983), and Dozier and
Broom (2006). Broom and Smith (1979) examined the tasks undertaken by
practitioners, and they developed five common roles: the technical service
provider, the expert prescriber, the communication process facilitator, the
problem solving/task facilitator, and acceptant legitimizer. Broom (1982)
simplified these concepts, reducing the roles to four and renaming them
the expert prescriber, the communication facilitator, the problem-solving
process facilitator, and the communication technician. Dozier (1983) and
Dozier and Broom (1995) further refined this work, noting how closely
connected the expert prescriber, the communication facilitator, and the
problem-solving process facilitator roles were. Because of this interrelated
nature, Dozier collapsed the three roles into one, simply calling it the
manager role.
Managers are part of the decision-making process and use research
and measurement to develop strategies (Dozier, 1981; 1984; 1992). In
contrast, technicians perform tasks, such as writing press releases, and
work to complete tasks assigned by managers and clients; their work does
not include strategy or problem solving (Broom & Smith, 1979; Dozier,
1992). While the manager and technician roles have been the standard
since their inception more than 30 years ago, there is some research that
suggests there could be new roles emerging (Diga & Kelleher, 2009; Neill
& Lee, 2016; Vieira & Grantham, 2014). However, current textbooks
rely on the dichotomy of the manager and the technician when explaining
public relations roles.
Employee Skills, Knowledge, and Abilities
In conjunction with a discussion of the manager and technician
roles, many textbooks also spell out the skills and abilities that are
desirable in entry-level and advanced employees (e.g., Wilcox, Cameron,

8. 24
& Reber, 2015). Public relations educators and practitioners have worked
together in summits, in meetings, and in the writing of reports in order to
develop students’ key skills and abilities through curricula that will endure
for decades (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2018). The first
comprehensive report of the Commission on Public Relations Education
was published in 1975; updates were made in 1987, 1999, 2006, 2010,
2012, and 2018 (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2018).
The latest report of the Commission, Fast Forward: Foundations
and Future State. Educators and Practitioners, was released in April
2018. Like the reports before it, the report states that one of the major
skills entry-level employees need is the ability to write. The new report,
however, goes beyond suggesting that today’s public relations graduates
be proficient writers by stating that they also need to be versatile and
adaptable writers. The authors also note the importance of research,
theory, ethics, and technology as necessary knowledge for today’s public
relations practitioner.
The discussion of what makes for the ideal public relations
program (i.e., one that provides students with the skills necessary for
employment) has been ongoing. Historically, many practitioners have
cautioned that public relations educators ignore the input of those hiring
graduates in order to meet the demands of students and administrators
(Wright & VanSlyke Turk, 1990). The authors of the 2015 Summit of the
Commission on Public Relations suggested that educators need to do a
better job of helping practitioners to understand the way universities work,
resource limitations, and the intricacies of accreditation, certification, and
core coursework requirements.
Some practitioners may believe recent graduates are not ready
for the workforce. For example, Todd (2009) found PRSSA professional
advisors did not believe educators were adequately preparing students
for current industry and practice standards. In fact, these professionals
suggested public relations curricula were out of touch and needed to put
more emphasis on new technologies, technician skills, and entry-level
positions. Further, they stated entry-level employees still lacked good
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

9. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 25
writing skills and suggested more practitioners should be involved in
assessing student work. Todd called for more engagement of academics
and professionals to ensure students were gaining the knowledge and skills
required in the workforce.
Similarly, the most recent Commission on Public Relations
Education (2018) report suggests, “There are gaps, often significant,
between what employers want, what they think new hires have – and
educators often tend to rate students higher than do practitioners” (p. 15).
Other research has also compared and contrasted what academics and
practitioners believe about public relations education. DiStaso, Stacks,
and Botan (2009) surveyed professionals and academics via PRSA, the
Association of Women in Communication, Page Society, Association
for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, International
Communication Association and National Communication Association
to better understand the current state of public relations education. While
both academics and professionals agreed that writing skills, especially
those necessary to write press releases, are essential for entry-level
employees, such skills often were not possessed by applicants. Both
groups also believed it was important for entry-level employees to possess
soft skills.
Hard skills can be thought of as those linked to the technical
abilities and knowledge of the field (Robles, 2012; Woodward, Sendall,
& Ceccucci, 2010). In PR, hard skills would include knowledge of
writing, data analysis, social media, and measurement. Soft skills are
characteristics, outlooks, and actions that help one to be proficient when
working with people, communication, and projects (Robles, 2012;
Woodward, Sendall, & Ceccucci, 2010). Robles (2012) suggested that
“soft skills are the intangible, nontechnical, personality-specific skills that
determine one’s strengths as a leader, facilitator, mediator, and negotiator”
(p. 457). In public relations, soft skills are needed for improved
communication, effective project management, and collaborative work
relationships.
DiStaso et al. (2009) found professionals and academics agreed

10. 26
that entry-level employees should have skills, both hard and soft,
including good attitudes, initiative, critical thinking and problem-solving
skills, organization skills, interpersonal skills, flexibility, knowledge of
media, knowledge of current events, creativity, the ability to take criticism,
and understanding of basic business practices. Again, the findings showed
that entry-level employees are sorely lacking in all the above skills,
but they were rated especially low for knowledge of current events and
business practices. Similarly, Auger and Cho (2016) found public relations
programs are still lacking in requirements for business courses in the
curriculum. These findings suggest that educators need to place greater
emphasis on these areas and types of knowledge.
In 2010, PRSA leaders wrote a white paper based on the thoughts
of delegates of the Leadership Assembly. This work identified what
industry and educational leaders believed would be the most important
skills and knowledge for future practitioners (Barber et al., 2012). Again
in the white paper, leaders called for knowledge of business practice
and literacy such as an understanding of financials, management, and
international experience. While noting a decline in writing skills, these
leaders said the core skills and competencies or hard skills of the field
were still relevant and necessary. Among other skills, the group noted
the need for technologic understanding, as well as emotional intelligence
and knowledge of social sciences such as psychology, sociology, and
anthropology. Adaptability, creativity, and understanding of design
principles were also mentioned as necessary skills, especially when
technology is involved (Jacques, 2015). Similarly, some stated that
students should be skilled in public speaking and interpersonal relationship
skills because executives will expect them to have those abilities (Jacques,
2012).
In May 2015, the Commission on Public Relations Education held
a summit with leading public relations practitioners to better determine
what the ideal public relations education standards should look like
(Commission on Public Relations Education, 2015). Practitioners at the
Summit helped to develop a description of the ideal entry-level public
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

11. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 27
relations practitioner. While the description included knowledge derived
from experience and classroom knowledge, it also included soft skills.
For example, certain personal traits, integrity, accountability, and a sense
of ethics were deemed necessary. In addition, these participants said
entry-level practitioners need to be driven and have intellectual curiosity,
making them lifelong learners. Being able to collaborate, to listen well, to
adapt, and to be sensitive to cultural and individual differences were noted
as important interpersonal skills for entry-level practitioners. Additionally,
the Summit participants also said self-awareness and assertiveness
were key. The practitioners also listed essential skills for entry-level
practitioners, many of which seemed managerial in origin. For example,
solving problems, conducting and analyzing data, and making connections
between how the world works and how those things affect the clients were
among this list of essential skills.
Finally, the group also identified essential knowledge for entry-
level public relations practitioners. Among the items mentioned were
knowing the role and value of public relations and being able to explain
this information to a client or employer; understanding how to measure
public relations outputs; interpreting data and understanding analytics;
knowing communication and public relations theories; understanding
cross cultural and global communication and sensitivities; understanding
how business works and how business acumen affects public relations,
as well as knowing “the skills that are new to the PR professional, the
things older professionals don’t even know yet” (Commission on Public
Relations Education, 2015, p. 8.) To sum it up, one COO of a global
corporation said the entry-level practitioner should: “Know how to write
and speak. Know how to run a project and work as part of a team. Think
globally” (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2015, p. 9). These
recommendations are a tall order for both educators and students.
Research in Public Relations Using Employment Ads
Little research has examined job descriptions and the offerings

12. 28
of public relations programs. Auger and Cho (2016) conducted a content
analysis comparing the courses taught within public relations curricula
to descriptions for entry- and advanced-level public relations jobs. Their
findings suggest that employers wanted to hire graduates with the ability
to compose and author materials, the ability to speak in front of people,
the ability to work with journalists, the ability to use emerging channels of
communication, and the ability to develop tactics and strategies. Positions
for people more advanced in their careers were more likely to require
interpersonal, fundraising, research/measurement, and crisis knowledge,
while entry-level ones had more emphasis on knowledge of visual
communication.
Auger and Cho (2016) concluded that generally speaking, the
current public relations course offerings were not only meeting industry
needs for entry-level positions but also giving students the foundation
they needed for advanced positions by including ethics, law, research,
and globalization in course content. These findings suggest that a strong
relationship has been built between public relations educators and
practitioners (Auger & Cho, 2016). However, their analysis also stated that
while educators are adequately preparing students for crisis, fundraising,
and basic public relations skills, they still fall short when it comes to social
and new media.
Auger and Cho (2016) stated some students are aware of this
shortcoming, as evidenced by Di Staso et al. (2009), who found that public
relations students feel least prepared for working with new technology,
design, and layout upon graduation. However, Auger and Cho argued that
this perceived knowledge gap regarding new and social media may be
temporary because course curricula are evolving, and many professors
are incorporating social media into existing course content even if stand-
alone social media courses are not listed on curriculum sheets. Due to
this shifting landscape, it seems there is still room for improving public
relations curricula when considering industry requirements, and it is
appropriate to investigate it further. This study will expand upon the
work of Auger and Cho by further investigating the skill sets sought by
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

13. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 29
entry-level employers. While Auger and Cho investigated a similar area
of research, they looked at both curricula and employment ads; however,
we looked only from the practitioner standpoint of what skills are being
sought from our graduates.
Research Questions
When faculty approach curriculum planning, there are always
questions about what new skills public relations professionals will need
to be competitive. Professional advisory boards and trade publications
provide some insight. However, a systematic approach to examining entry-
level employment ads in public relations may answer questions about
specific skills that are being requested of new graduates, which furthers
the work of Auger and Cho (2016), and is needed to better understand
how and if the PR curriculum is keeping up with the needs of the
practice. Based on the literature and foundational framework examined,
the researchers developed the following research questions to gain more
insight into what entry-level public relations employment ads requested of
applicants in terms of education and skills.
RQ1: What degrees are sought in entry-level employment ads in
public relations?
RQ2: What knowledge/skills related to writing formats are sought
in entry-level employment ads in public relations?
RQ3: What knowledge/skills related to social media platforms are
sought in entry-level employment ads in public relations?
RQ4: What knowledge/skills related to design tools are sought in
entry-level employment ads in public relations?
RQ5: What managerial knowledge/skills are sought in entry-level
employment ads in public relations?
RQ6: What soft skills are sought in entry-level employment ads in
public relations?

14. 30
Methods
Sampling
For a sampling frame of job skills and requirements, job
postings from the Public Relations Society of America Job Center were
gathered via a convenience sample. The sample included 199 entry-
level employment ads posted between October 28 and November 18,
2015. Entry-level is defined here as requiring fewer than three years of
experience. The unit of analysis was the job description of the PRSA Job
Center website.
The PRSA Job Center website allows users to search its job
postings based on “Organizational Setting.” The settings include the
following: 1) corporation, 2) educational institution, 3) government/
military, 4) independent practitioner, 5) nonprofit/association, 6)
professional services, 7) public relations agency/consultancy, 8) recruiter,
and 9) other. Our sample had the following distribution: corporation
(n = 78), educational institution (n = 18), government/military (n =
3), independent practitioner (n = 0), nonprofit/association (n = 33),
professional services (n = 13), public relations agency/consultancy (n =
28), recruiter (n = 9), and other (n = 16).
Measures and Coding Procedure
The coding sheet was developed based on the literature
surrounding public relations education, practitioner wants/needs for entry-
level employees, and soft skills. The coding sheet was used to assess the
educational level, fields of study, the types of writing experience desired,
soft skills, social media platforms, and design programs requested in
each of the ads. The instrument consisted of 58 questions and was broken
into sections to help guide the coders. For example, one section asked
the coders to look for and code basic information about the job such as
organization type and degree type. The other sections of the instrument
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

15. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 31
asked the coders to inventory information about writing formats and skills,
social media platforms and skills, design tools and skills, managerial
skills, and soft skills listed in each ad.
Intercoder Reliability
The authors held two training sessions with two research assistants
(one undergraduate and one graduate student) to review the coding
instrument and code book. After these sessions, the two trained research
assistants coded independently. At first, the research assistants conducted
a pretest of 10% of the research sample to test the coding instrument for
reliability. Discussion was used as a means to clarify inconsistencies.
Using Holsti’s formula, the initial intercoder reliability was found to be
80.68%. Although this intercoder reliability falls within an acceptable
range, the researchers refined the coding sheet and with these changes,
the intercoder reliability rose to 89.2% (Stacks, 2016). One significant
change between the pretest instrument and final coding sheet involved
the structure of the skill lists. The first draft of the coding sheet presented
the skill sections as long checklists, and because of that length, the coders
were missing key terms. In response to that issue, the coding tool was
revised, so the coders had to state whether each skill was listed in the ad
with a simple yes or no format. By forcing the coders to look through the
ad for each individual term, intercoder reliability was increased.
Results
RQ1: What degrees are sought in entry-level employment ads in
public relations?
Nearly three-quarters of the employment ads listed the bachelor’s
degree as preferred or required (see Table 1). The ads were fairly open
as to the specific majors requested. Forty percent of the ads made no
mention of majors, with another six percent just saying “related field.”

16. 32
Communication (42%), journalism (27%), and marketing (34%) were the
most commonly mentioned degrees. Public relations (17%) and English
(14%) also appeared occasionally.
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates
Degree N Percentage
Master’s degree
required/preferred
4 3%
Bachelor’s degree
required/preferred
131 74%
Associate’s
degree required/
preferred
8 5%
Some college
required
11 6%
No reference
to educational
requirements
18 10%
Specifically says
no education
needed
5 3%
Table 1
Degrees Sought in Entry-Level Employment Ads
R2: What knowledge/skills related to writing formats are sought in
entry-level employment ads in public relations?
Writing skills are consistently valued highly across many
professions. Public relations is a writing-centric profession. Thus, it is no
surprise that 70% of the ads listed writing well as a key to success. It is
probably more surprising that 30% of the ads didn’t mention writing.
Public relations is not the same profession it was years ago.
Therefore, the authors wanted to pay particular attention to any specific

17. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 33
Writing
Skill
N % Writing Skill N %
General
written skills
124 70% Proposals 10 6%
Web
content
94 53% Speeches 10 6%
Promotional
materials
(including
brochures)
89 50% Ad copy 8 5%
Social
media
83 47% Crisis plans 7 4%
Strategic
plans
67 38% Media kits 7 4%
Press/news
releases
48 27% Fact sheets 6 3%
Newsletters 40 23% Surveys 5 3%
Feature
stories/
releases
39 22% Media
advisories
3 2%
Blogs 27 15% Video news
releases
3 2%
Annual
reports
26 15% Memos 2 1%
Business
plans
23 13% Backgrounders 1 .06%
Scripts 15 9% Broadcast copy 1 .06%
Table 2
Writing Formats and Skills Sought in Entry-Level Employment Ads

18. 34
forms of writing mentioned in the ads as a way to understand what
types of assignments might best position graduates for the job market.
Table 2 shows how often 22 writing pieces appeared in the entry-level
employment ads.
There were far fewer specific writing forms mentioned in the
ads than might be expected. Only promotional materials (including
brochures) and web content were found at least 50% of the time. Social
media appeared in 47% of the ads. Strategic plans (38%) and press
releases (27%) were also among those items more frequently mentioned.
A common writing form that was not coded for originally, but seemed to
come up frequently in the “other” category, was the newsletter. Through
additional coding, the authors found newsletters mentioned in 23% of the
ads.
RQ3: What knowledge/skills related to social media platforms are
sought in entry-level employment ads in public relations?
Social media appeared in about half the entry-level employment
ads, but Table 3 shows that specific platforms were not often mentioned;
however, Facebook and Twitter were noted in 14% of the ads. Social
media management tools such as Hootsuite or TweetDeck rarely appear,
with 93% of the ads making no mention of social media management tools
at all. Similarly, social media analytic tools such as Google Analytics were
also not common, with 84% of the ads making no mentions. Therefore,
it is clear that while social media is a common expectation for new
graduates, the specific tools are not being mentioned all that much.
Although Microsoft Office tools are not social media, this research
did code for whether they appeared in the ads after the coders mentioned
how frequently they were seeing it in the test batch. About half the ads
mention Office and the specific tools of Word, PowerPoint, and Excel.
RQ4: What knowledge/skills related to design tools are sought in
entry-level employment ads in public relations?
Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates

19. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 35
The Adobe Creative Cloud and the specific tools included were
mentioned in 28% of the ads. Photoshop (18%), InDesign (13%) and
Illustrator (10%) were the most commonly mentioned tools. The research
also looked at web design tools and platforms. Only 20% of the ads made
any mention of either content management systems, such as WordPress, or
HTML or other coding.
RQ5: What managerial knowledge/skills are sought in entry-level
employment ads in public relations?
This research also looked at a wide array of managerial skills.
Social Media N Percentage
Social media mentioned broadly 57 32%
Facebook 25 14%
Twitter 22 12%
LinkedIn 12 7%
YouTube 12 7%
Instagram 4 2%
Pinterest 3 2%
Snapchat 0 0%
Tumblr 0 0%
Vimeo 0 0%
No social media mentioned 95 54%
Table 3
Social Media Platform Experience Sought in Entry-Level Employment Ads

20. 36 Brunner, Zarkin, & Yates
Skill N Percentage
Project management 118 67%
Budgeting &
scheduling
48 27%
Event planning 34 19%
Office management 3 2%
Table 4
Management Skills Sought in Entry-Level Employment Ads
Table 4 shows specific skills mentioned in the ads, including budgeting
(27%) and event planning (19%). Project management appeared in
67% of the ads, speaking to the importance of developing that skill in
undergraduates. Office management skills were only mentioned in 2% of
the ads examined.
RQ6: What soft skills are sought in entry-level employment ads in
public relations?
Table 5 shows a wide variety of soft skills coded. Being
collaborative and collegial topped the list, appearing in 67% of the ads.
Organizational skills such as being able to multitask appeared in 59% of
the ads. The other two most commonly mentioned skills are closely related
to the first two. Thirty-nine percent of the ads specifically mentioned
relationship-building and/or time management/managing deadlines. Other
frequently mentioned soft skills in the “other” category were editing and
proofreading, customer service, and analytical skills. Oral communication
skills also showed up with similar regularity, suggesting the need for
students to work on oral presentations of all kinds.
Discussion
While it is not surprising that entry-level positions require a college

21. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 37
Soft Skills N %
Collaborative, collegial, enthusiasm, friendly,
interpersonal skills, personable, positive attitude,
team player, teamwork
118 67%
Communication skills/oral - including public
speaking, presentations
117 66%
Organization skills, fast-paced environment (able
to handle), juggling multiple projects, multi-tasker,
prioritize (able to)
104 59%
Deadlines (able to meet) or time management 69 39%
Relationship building and maintaining 69 39%
Goal oriented, sets goals, accomplishes goals,
self-starter, self-motivated
62 35%
Detail-oriented 51 29%
Creativity 47 27%
Knowledge of the particular industry 47 27%
Problem solver, solutions (able to find) 24 14%
Independent thinker, intellectual curiosity 17 10%
News judgment or understanding of journalism 12 7%
Stress (able to deal with) 12 7%
Ethical behavior 7 4%
Constructive criticism (able to handle) 5 3%
Table 5
Soft Skills Sought in Entry-Level Employment Ads
degree, it might seem odd to some that the ads in this sample were more
likely to request a communication, journalism, or marketing degree than
one in public relations. These findings support curricula that encourage
students to enroll in a variety of courses across disciplines and to seek

22. 38
minors that will complement the knowledge and skills of their chosen
major. These findings also raise questions about how well PR educators
are communicating the value of the PR-specific degree. Public relations
industry leaders have been cautioning academics and practitioners about
the dangers of having people not trained in public relations working in the
field since 1973 (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2018).
As has been noted, practitioners are concerned with entry-level
graduates’ writing abilities. Perhaps this frustration is exacerbated by
practitioners not insisting that job ads specifically require a degree in
public relations, as well as by the employment of people who do not have
classwork or degrees in public relations. According to DiStaso, Cornish,
Sheffer, and Dodd (2018), “Many practitioners do not require a degree
in public relations when hiring for entry-level positions. This means that
the field is flooded with students who went to programs lacking a strong
writing focus, no or a low barrier to entry to major, and students who did
not get a public relations degree but want to work in the field” (p. 42).
Perhaps inviting practitioners to be more involved in education
through guest speaking engagements, student-run firm advising, and
advisory boards would help change this situation (Commission on Public
Relations Education, 2018). If practitioners are more involved with
public relations educators, they would better understand what is taught
in the curriculum, and misconceptions about what is being taught could
be cleared up more readily (Commission on Public Relations Education,
2015). Perhaps with greater practitioner involvement and knowledge
of what the PR curriculum includes, we will see more ads specifically
requesting applicants who have an undergraduate degree in PR, which
ultimately helps not only academics but the profession as well.
The examination of the ads in this sample demonstrate that entry-
level jobs are still written with a technician in mind. Technicians are
employees who typically do not make decisions on the management level,
but instead develop communication tactics and carry out the decisions and
policies made by others (Broom & Dozier, 1986; Dozier, 1984). Similar
to what other researchers have found, this research also finds writing is
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23. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 39
still the most highly desired skill for entry-level practitioners (Auger &
Cho, 2016; DiStaso et al., 2009; Jacques, 2012; Jacques, 2015); however,
the lesson from RQ2 is that the ads are far less specific about the types
of writing needed in these entry-level jobs than might be expected. One
possibility is public relations formats are perceived to change so rapidly
that specific forms of writing may quickly become obsolete. Yet other
possibilities are that the ads are written with the skill set of the person who
last held the position in mind, or the ads are written by human resources
personnel who may not be as familiar with the field.
The advent of social media as a significant part of an entry-level
technician’s day puts practitioners and academics in a unique situation not
only to need to be constantly on top of the latest trends but also to find
interesting ways to use the latest platforms to engage publics. Although
most of the ads reviewed for this study did not mention specific social
media platforms, management software, or analytic tools by name, they
did call for social media skills and knowledge. The need for social media
knowledge among public relations students and practitioners is obvious.
For example, a 2017 study by Wright and Hinson found many public
relations practitioners reported spending up to a quarter of their working
day using social media. Students would likely be well-served if they had
a command of both social media platforms and social media analytic tools
(Kinsky, Freberg, Kim, Kushin, & Ward, 2016; Meng, Jin, Lee, & Kim,
2017).
Despite the ads’ adherence to the traditional technician role, there
also seems to be a trend to request management skills of entry-level
practitioners. For example, 67% of the ads examined requested applicants
have project management skills. Similarly, the list of essential skills
put together by participants of the 2015 Summit of the Commission on
Public Relations also mentions the need for managerial skills. Perhaps
as more employers come to recognize the importance of employees
with measurement skills, more entry-level positions will evolve from
purely technician to that of a manager’s apprentice. This new role might
still require the writing skills and familiarity with tactics of the current

24. 40
technician role, but add to it knowledge of measurement and social media
strategy and analytics, data collection, and the development of preliminary
reports. In this bridging role, a manager’s apprentice might be responsible
for some decision-making, problem solving and policy related to social
media and/or other areas. Even with this suggested additional role, the
public relations manager would still be responsible for the public relations
program, its outcomes, and problem solving; the public relations manager
would still be the expert in the field who negotiates, plans, and strategizes
the communication between organizational leaders and publics (Broom &
Dozier, 1986; Dozier, 1984).
Another area students may need to be familiar with is design,
including design programs. The need for design can probably be tied to
the type of public relations the students see themselves pursuing. Those
students aiming for agencies and larger corporations will likely work
with graphic and web designers. However, students interested in smaller
nonprofits and independent consultancies will likely need to rely on
themselves for basic design tasks such as brochures, posters, and simple
websites. Educators and practitioners alike believe knowledge of design
is helpful (Gallicano, Ekachai, & Freberg, 2014); however, they rate
this knowledge as less necessary than skills such as writing and research
(Commission on Public Relations Education, 2018). “While these skills
may still be important in smaller organizations that do not have their own
production facilities or can’t afford to outsource production, the ability
to communicate using appropriate messages and channels appears to be
more important than the packaging of those messages” (O’Neil, Moreno,
Rawlins, & Valentini, 2018, p. 55). Perhaps in the future, educators will
find more ways to infuse design within the existing curriculum or build
relationships across their respective campuses, so students can take
supporting classes in areas such as graphic design.
Other qualities desired in entry-level public relations practitioners
include soft skills such as the ability to meet deadlines, collaborate,
speak in public, and build relationships. Soft skills have moved from
knowledge that is “nice-to-have” to a “must-have” for employers (Bancino
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25. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 41
& Zevalkink, 2007, p. 22). In 2010, Klaus reported that approximately
three-quarters of continuing employment accomplishment is contingent
upon malleable abilities, whereas merely one-quarter of long-term job
success was attributed to hard skills. While hard skills are already part
of university curricula, soft skills need more emphasis to better prepare
students for the workforce (Wellington, 2005). Going forward, a challenge
for faculty will be helping students identify ways in which they can
document soft skills on their resumes, especially if job ads specifically call
for such skills. In addition, it seems students with proficiency in Microsoft
Office programs should include them on their resumes based on the
findings of this study.
Recommendations for the Classroom
From a curricular standpoint, public relations faculty can stand
by the idea that good writing is good writing, regardless of the particular
form (Jacques, 2015). New modes of writing can be learned, if the basic
skills are already there. Therefore, it seems appropriate for educators
to continue to teach AP Style, grammar, and sentence structure, but
they need to balance assignments requiring students to write traditional
pieces such as promotional materials, press releases, and features with
assignments focusing purely on writing for social media platforms, such
as Facebook, blogs, Twitter, and general web content. Faculty need to
continue to develop social media classes (Kim & Freberg, 2016; Zhang &
Freberg, 2018), as well as find ways to introduce such content across all
current courses (Auger & Cho, 2016). By including lectures and projects
related to analytics, proper use of social media, and the writing, design,
and presentation of social media content, any shortcomings in these areas
would be addressed.
Faculty need to find ways to integrate both hard and soft skills into
assignments, assessment, and classwork in order to create a more well-
rounded graduate (Robles, 2012). Getting students out of the comfort zone
of lecture can help them to practice and develop soft skills (Bancino &

26. 42
Zevalkink, 2007; Dalley, 2014; Schulz, 2008). Soft skills are best taught
using experiential, authentic, and integrated learning, such as when the
faculty member takes on the role of a coach rather than a lecturer and
guides students through assignments that require teamwork, writing, and
oral presentations (Elmuti, 2004; Gordon, 1998; Navarro, 2008; Noll &
Wilkins, 2002; Tuleja & Greenhalgh, 2008).
To encourage students to develop the soft skills and other qualities
most wanted by industry leaders, faculty could also use techniques
associated with the flipped classroom (Gibson & Sodeman, 2014;
Hutchings & Quinney, 2015). In the flipped classroom, class time is
used mainly for application and analysis rather than lecture. By building
motivation among students, they come to class prepared by having
completed assignments, and the classroom can more closely resemble
a functioning workplace where faculty take on the role of a facilitator
who guides students through active learning experiences that help them
to build their professional talents (Bristol, 2014). Additionally, the
flipped classroom helps students to develop skills such as leadership,
collaboration, communication, and problem solving (Chen, Wang,
Kinshuk, & Chen, 2014; James, Chin, & Williams, 2014). Faculty could
task students with assignments and projects focused on measurement,
making connections among the global context and their respective
assignments, conducting and analyzing data, developing goals and
objectives, and refining their storytelling skills to better prepare them for
the workplace (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2015).
By developing such assignments, students would not only have
the safety of the classroom while making mistakes and learning, but also
would take part in peer-to-peer education while being guided by a faculty
member. Students could be asked to participate in gallery walks in which
they reflect upon and offer constructive criticism to their peers. Gallery
walks help students to synthesize and evaluate the work of their peers
through movement, reflection, analysis, group discussion, and writing
(Honeycutt, n.d.). This activity can mirror the team dynamic common to
many workplaces.
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27. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 43
Students could also conduct micro-teaching assignments on topics
such as professionalism or globalism to further reinforce public speaking
skills and adherence to deadlines. Students could also be tasked with
reflecting upon the ethics and responsibilities surrounding their own work
to further develop them as professionals. Finally, students could be asked
to help develop rubrics and other assessment tools for assignments, so they
can learn more about what quality work is and how to judge it. Therefore,
the flipped classroom might be a key to developing the entry-level
employee that industry leaders dream of hiring while helping students to
be ready for the manager’s apprentice role they could encounter in the
workforce.
Some final suggestions are for faculty, with the help of
practitioners, to develop soft skills seminars for students to take before
interning. By eliciting the help of internship supervisors, faculty could find
ways to build students’ knowledge of and confidence in their soft skills.
Internship supervisors could also be called upon to help assess soft skills
as part of their feedback about interns (Daugherty, 2011). Community
partners and clients working with students on long-term projects could
also help assess these areas (Steimel, 2013). Similarly, student-run
agencies under the guidance of faculty and/or practitioners could also be
a place where students learn about and further develop their soft skills
with assessments specific to this skill set built into any feedback materials
(Bush & Miller, 2011; Swanson, 2011). Finally, practitioners could assist
faculty with building soft skills knowledge in students by providing
workshops, talks, and/or webinars on the topic through professional
organizations such as PRSSA.
Limitations and Future Research
Although these data are interesting, they are only based on a
convenience sample of online ads posted on PRSA’s website. This sample
not only excludes ads found in other media, but it could also exclude
those organizations unable to pay posting fees such as small organizations,

28. 44
particularly represented by the nonprofit sector. In order to answer the
research questions posed by the authors, only entry-level ads were
reviewed; therefore, little information has been gained about the skills and
knowledge necessary to move to the next level of employment. A follow-
up study should examine job ads targeted to middle- and senior-level
practitioners in order to complete the picture of what skills and knowledge
public relations practitioners need throughout the life of their careers.
Finally, this research vein could be further explored using
qualitative methods, such as focus groups or in-depth interviews. Focus
groups and/or interviews could be conducted with those people who are
hiring entry-level public relations practitioners. This step would help
public relations educators to better understand not only what employers
want in entry-level public relations practitioners, but also why they
desire such skills and qualities. Similarly, qualitative and quantitative
methods could be used to gain insight into the experiences of newly hired
entry-level practitioners to understand their interview and job search
experiences, as well as to determine what skills and knowledge they
draw upon to complete their daily work. These lines of research could
help educators when developing courses, course content, and curricula
to prepare students for the workforce they will encounter, thereby
strengthening the relationship between educators and practitioners.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it seems that faculty can best meet the needs of
their students and their future employers by being aware of the knowledge
and skills that are called for in entry-level employment ads. In addition,
faculty should build strong alliances with their local practitioners to further
gain insight into this aspect of their work. Perhaps a final suggestion is
for faculty and students to closely examine entry-level job ads in the
classroom and determine ways to take students from undergraduate to
employed public relations practitioners.
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29. Vol. 4(2), 2018 Journal of Public Relations Education 45
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