Psychology Report on Metacognition

1. METACOGNITION 0
Topic:
Metacognition
Group Members:
Areej Minahil BS-IAS-30-R-F18
Isma Khalid BS-IAS-31-R-F18
Shaham Bilal BS-IAS-34-R-F18
Yusra Rahim BS-IAS-33-R-F18
Sheza Abbas BS-IAS-32-R-F18
Submitted to:
Mam Madiha Malik

2. METACOGNITION 1
Areej Minahil
Roll no 30
What Is Metacognition?
Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking” and was introduced as a concept in by John
Flavell, who is typically seen as a founding scholar of the field. Flavell said that metacognition is
the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes (your thinking).Flavell (1979). It is
your ability to control your thinking processes through various strategies, such as organizing,
monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon the tasks or processes
you undertake and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your intercultural
interactions.
Metacognition is considered a critical component of successful learning. It involves self-
regulation and self-reflection of strengths, weaknesses, and the types of strategies you create. It
is a necessary foundation in culturally intelligent leadership because it underlines how you think
through a problem or situation and the strategies you create to address the situation or problem.
Dimensions of Metacognition:
 Metacognitive knowledge includes the learner’s knowledge of their own cognitive
abilities (e.g., I have trouble remembering people’s names), the learner’s knowledge of
particular tasks and the learner’s knowledge of different strategies including when to use
these strategies (e.g., if I break telephone numbers into chunks I will remember them)
(Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979).
 Metacognitive regulation describes how learners monitor and control their cognitive
processes. For example, realizing that the strategy you are using to solve a math’s
problem is not working and trying another approach (Nelson and Narens, 1990).
Categories of Metacognition Knowledge:
 Personal Variables
 Task Variables
 Strategy Variable

3. METACOGNITION 2
Personal Variable: What you recognize your strengths and weakness in learning and processing
Information.
Task Variable: what you know about the nature of task and processing demands require
completing the task.
Strategy Variable: What you know about different strategies you apply to successfully
accomplish a task.
What is the theory behind metacognition?
A theory of metacognitive regulation that is widely cited in the research literature is Nelson and
Narens’ (1990) Model of Metacognition. This consists of two levels:
 Object level
 Meta level
The object level is where cognitive processes or ‘one’s thinking’ occurs. One example is
decoding text when reading. At the object level, cognitive strategies (e.g., decoding) are used to
help the learner achieve a particular goal (understanding the meaning of the text).
The meta level is where your ‘thinking about thinking’ takes place. At this higher-order level,
metacognitive strategies are used to ensure the learner reaches the goal they have set. To
continue with the reading example, this would begin with the learner thinking about how well
they have understood the paragraph they have just read. This is termed monitoring. If they are
happy with their comprehension level they will continue reading. If not, they will perhaps re-read
the paragraph, or decide to use a dictionary to help their understanding. These actions are called
control processes, as they are changing the learner’s cognitive processes or related behaviors,
Metacognition based on the monitoring feedback.

4. METACOGNITION 3
Isma Khalid
Roll no 31
Difference between Novice and Experts Learners:
Novice learners:are well-intentioned folks who are typically brimming with enthusiasm
while lacking actual knowledge about the subject being taught. They have limited or
nonexistent experience with most of their understanding of the subject based on basic
rules. Because of this, their ability to perform is rather limited.
Experts Learners: on the other hand, know a significant amount about the subject and
how it’s organized meaning they cannot only understand but can add to a lesson. Their
abilities allow them to take in the larger picture and not fixate on minor attributes (as
summarized by Ross, Phillips, Klein, & Cohn, 2005). Expert learners are able to apply
what they learn to create a far more intuitive way of working.
Aspects of learning Novice learning Expert learning
Knowledge in different
Subjects
Having limited knowledge in
the different subject areas
Have deeper knowledge in
different subjects areas
because they for
interrealtionship in things
they learn
Problem Solving Satisfied at just scratching the
surface; hurriedly gives a
solution to problem
First try to umderstand the
problem,look for
boundaries,and create a
mental picture of problem
Learning/ thinking Strategies Employ rigid strategies that
may not be approprtiate to the
task at hand
Design new strategies that
would be appropriate to the
task
Selectively in processing Attempts to process sll
information they recieve
Select important information
to process , able to
breakdown information

5. METACOGNITION 4
Metacognition and Learning:
When we start out learning something new, we all go through different stages on the way to
metacognition, in which we become aware and in control of the knowledge structure. This
diagram was adapted from Waldman and Newberg’s “The Spectrum of Human Consciousness
Model” demonstrates the stages of learning on the pathway to metacognition.
STEP 1: Instinctive Learning: We begin to study and learn something new with curiosity and
desire and experience positive emotions when success is attained. Conversely, we experience
negative emotions when we fail to reach our goals.
STEP 2: Habitual Learning: We form study habits over time and it is very important to
develop proper study habits, or else we will only get by until the work becomes challenging.
Developing these habits early will set you up for a lifetime of success.
STEP 3: Intentional Learning: This is where we spend most of our logic, reason, and attention
when solving problems. The challenge here is that we are working with our short-term working
memory, which contains limited information . It is easy to get distracted at this level of
awareness . Worries, fears, and doubts also operate on this level and can interfere with our
decision-making strategies . We must learn strategies to move forward in spite of fear and focus
on the positive side of situations, taking a proactive approach to learning instead of giving up at
the first sign of a challenge .
STEP 4: Creative Learning: This is where all of the magic happens for decision-making and
goal-setting; this process is very strenuous on the brain and requires frequent breaks in order to
reset our neurochemistry . We must find a way to relax our brain and our body . During these
“resting states,” remarkable activity takes place, allowing the brain to creatively solve problems .
We must be careful to not confuse creativity with reality but must recognize that magical
thinking is a normal creative process . When creativity is integrated with logic and reason,
research shows that we can solve conflicts and improve academic success. Dr. Srini Pillay’s most
recent book, “Tinker, Dabble, Doodle, Try: Unlock the Power of the Unfocused Mind” outlines
the importance of taking creative breaks to hit these higher levels of breakthrough. His book
brilliantly outlines the importance of taking breaks in between periods of focused concentration.
“Focus and unfocused are two different settings” Pillay explains “Focus is the close and narrow
that illuminates the path directly ahead. Unfocused is the beam that reaches reaches far and wide,
enabling peripheral vision.”i

6. METACOGNITION 5
Metacognitive Strategies in Classroom:
Metacognitive strategies refers to methods used to help students understand the way they learn;
in other words, it means processes designed for students to ‘think’ about their ‘thinking’.
Teachers who use metacognitive strategies can positively impact students who have learning
disabilities by helping them to develop an appropriate plan for learning information, which can
be memorized and eventually routine. As students become aware of how they learn, they will use
these processes to efficiently acquire new information, and consequently, become more of an
independent thinker. Below are ten metacognitive strategies, which all include related
resources, that can be implemented in the classroom:

7. METACOGNITION 6
1. Ask Questions. During formal courses and in post-training activities, ask questions that
allow learners to reflect on their own learning processes and strategies. In collaborative
learning, ask them to reflect on the role they play when problem solving in teams.
2. Foster Self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and after
learning experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own assumptions and
how this may have influenced their learning. (Read about transformative learning.)
3. Encourage Self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to generate
their own questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be
related to meeting their personal goals
4. Teach Strategies Directly. Teach appropriate metacognitive strategies as a part of a
training course.
5. Promote Autonomous Learning. When learners have some domain knowledge,
encourage participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be forced to
construct their own metacognitive strategies.
6. Provide Access to Mentors. Many people learn best by interacting with peers who are
slightly more advanced. Promote experiences where novices can observe the proficient
use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies of their mentors.
7. Solve Problems with a Team: Cooperative problem solving can enhance metacognitive
strategies by discussing possible approaches with team members and learning from each
other.
8. Think Aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while
performing a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner can then point out errors in thinking
or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness during learning.
Another approach to thinking aloud is the working out loud approach. Listen to this
interview with Jane Bozarth about working out loud.
9. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve their
comprehension of a difficult subject.
10. Provide Opportunities for Making Errors. When learners are given the opportunity to
make errors while in training, such as during simulations, it stimulates reflection on the
causes of their errors.ii

8. METACOGNITION 7
In summary, metacognition is a set of skills that enable learners to become aware of how they
learn and to evaluate and adapt these skills to become increasingly effective at learning. In a
world that demands lifelong learning, providing people with new and improved metacognitive
strategies is a gift that can last forever.
Metacognitive Strategies in learning:
Metacognitive strategies include the following:
Following ate three strategies of learning through metacognition:
i) Planning
Metacognitive work sheet for planning looks like:
“Thinkg about my thinking” Students Worksheet
Name:
Topic:
What I know What I want to know How will I find out? What I have learned?
Strategy Evaluation Matrix
Strategy How to Use? When to use? What is it for?
Skim/Survey Search for
headings,highlighted
words,previews and
summaries
Before you read a
long piece of text
Gives an overview of
key concepts , helps
you to focus on the
important points
Slow down Stop ,read and think
about information.
When information
seems important. If
you realize you don’t
Improves your focus
on important
information

9. METACOGNITION 8
understand what you
have just read.
Activate prior
kowledge
Stop and think about
what you already
know about a topic
Before you do
something or do an
unfamiliar task
Makes new
information easier to
remember and allows
to see links between
subjects. Information
is less daunting if you
already know
something about the
topic
Fit ideas together Relate main ideas to
one another . Look
for themes that
connect the main
ideas, or a conclusion
When thinking about
complex information,
when deep
understanding is
needed.
Once you know how
ideas are related they
are easier as if they
are separate facts .
Also helps to
understand them
more deeply
Draw Diagram Identify main ideas,
connect them ,
classify ideas, decide
which information is
most important and
which is supporting
When there is a lot of
factual information
that is interrelated
Helps to identift main
ideas and organize
them into categories .
Reduce memory load.
May be easier to
visualize
ii) Monitoring:
Metacognitive work sheet for monitoring look like:
“Thinkg about my thinking” Students Worksheet
Name:

10. METACOGNITION 9
Topic:
What I know What I want to know What I have learned? What I still need to
know?
iii) Evaluating:
Metacognitive work sheet for evaluating looks like:
“Thinkg about my thinking” Students Worksheet
Name:
Topic:
What I know now What I still need to
know
How did I find out? How will do it next
time?
Planning
• This strategy
allows learner
to preview
initial ideas of
how to
accomplish the
learning tasks.
Monitoring
• Learners will
monitor the
progress og
their learing
and check
lanuguage
comprehension
and
production.
Evaluating
• Learner will
evaluate how
well one has
accomplished a
learning task.

11. METACOGNITION 10
Shaham Bilal
Roll no 34
Metacognition in classroom
Students receiving instruction on metacognition develop skills that will make them more
successful in their academic and professional careers. The better able a student is to understand
how he or she learns, remembers and processes information, the more information he or she will
ultimately retain. This ability is further linked to developing better memory skills, which is a
predictor of future academic success.
Students who understand how they learn are better able to create situations that promote
learning. For instance, learners might know that they need to study in a quiet room, at a certain
time of day, or with notecards in a class that requires a lot of memorization. Alternatively, he or
she might know that writing requires a different sort of setting or time allotment all together.
While there is a lot to teach in a day, encouraging time for reflection on the learning process
enables students to better understand their own learning processes. This, in turn, provides
students with the skills to study and complete coursework more efficiently and successfully.
Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses as
learners, writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the limit
of one’s knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend the
ability. Those who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to
“actively monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular
tasks and performances”
“If people lack the skills to produce correct answers, they are also cursed with an inability to
know when their answers, or anyone else’s, are right or wrong”. This research suggests that
increased metacognitive abilities—to learn specific (and correct) skills, how to recognize them,
and how to practice them.

12. METACOGNITION 11
Role of teachers in metacognition
People debate about which subjects will prepare kids for the future – whether it’s engineering or
coding or philosophy. But A.J. Juliani puts it, “Our job as teachers is not to ‘prepare’ kids for
something; our job is to help kids learn to prepare themselves for anything.”
Teachers can help students develop metacognition with a number of strategies. To start, teachers
can provide students with information about how the brain processes information, how it forms
knowledge and memories, as well as the impact stress has on these abilities. Teachers can also
encourage students to recognize what they don’t understand and discuss how confronting the
unknown is an integral part of the learning experience.
Teachers can also assign students to assess their own beliefs regarding issues like race, bias or
other held beliefs. This assessment pushes both personal growth and understanding of how
beliefs are formed and how they can evolve. In short, any assignment that encourages students to
figure out the answers on their own helps them to work through the learning process and refine
their learning skills.
Group work and collaboration further enable students to develop metacognition as these skills
help students to work through problems in new ways. Working with others enables students to
look at problems from new perspectives and helps them to understand how they might better
approach problems in the future.
When teachers empower their students, they help them develop metacognitive skills. This is why
we integrated metacognition into the Launch Cycle, a design thinking framework. Students get to
ask the questions, choose the research strategies, and actively monitor their progress through
project management.
Why Teachers Needto Know about Metacognition?
Metacognitive techniques are not always taught in the right vein to the students. They are always
asked to learn from the information and course details that are provided to them. However, it’s
important to put in more thought to the process, as the textual information and facts usually tend
to fade away quickly. It is always of more value if the teachers put in enough effort in

13. METACOGNITION 12
developing ways through which the students can self-regulate and evaluate their ways of
learning.
Teaching Students to Set up a Goal
The first elementary step for teaching metacognition will be to teach the students to set up a goal
and an effective plan of action to achieve this. It is a prevalent practice that a majority do not set
clear and transparent goals for themselves. But it is important to embed multitasking skills that
should involve:
● Setting up a goal
● Decide ways to achieve it
● Involve in effective multitasking for the best results
This will help them excel not only in the concerned topic, but also enhance their metacognitive
approach.
Ways to boost metacognition in students
● Use Reflection Questions: Reflection questions can helpfully frame a course in opening
or closing sessions, or maintain focus on a theme throughout the semester. Particularly
after teaching a major concept or skill, the instructor can encourage students to monitor
their learning by having them answer questions individually or in groups like: “what did I
know about this topic before the class?” “What have I just learned?” “How did I learn
it?” “What do I still need to learn?” “What is most confusing or challenging about this
concept / skill?” These questions can come in the form of pre assignment questions,
journals, 1-minute papers, or when carefully controlled, whole class or group discussions.
● Use Exam Wrappers: After a major assessment, encourage students to monitor their
learning by answering questions, either in class or as an out-of-class assignment like:
“which study habits or strategies were least effective for my learning?” “which study
habits were most effective for my learning?” “what content and concepts did I know best,
and how / when did I study for them?” What content / concepts am I still struggling
with?” This brief assignment, called an exam wrapper, invites students to describe how

14. METACOGNITION 13
they prepared, whether or not they thought their preparations were effective, and how
they will plan to prepare for future assessments
● Incorporate Metacognition into Assessments and Evaluations: Instructors can incorporate
questions on evaluations that enable students to reflect upon the connections between
their knowledge and study efforts, such as: “Which of these concepts took the most effort
for me to learn? What study habits did I deploy?” “What classroom activities made this
content the clearest for me? Why did I respond well to these specific activities?” “What
ideas am I still struggling with? What learning techniques might help me clarify this
content?” These questions should be included together in a separate section of the
assessment or exam.
● Engage Students with Active Learning: Because they help students make connections and
approach content in a variety of different ways, active learning techniques lend
themselves to metacognition.
Benefits of Metacognition
It helps with
● Improving critical thinking.
● Improving self-reflection.
● Increasing Mental productivity & creativity
● Develops higher learning and problem solving skills
Disadvantages of poor metacognition
● Poor self-esteem
● Difficulty in problem solving
● Poor reading comprehension
● Poor language and communication skills
● Difficulty in obtaining success in society

15. METACOGNITION 14
Yusra Rahim
Roll no 33
Critical Thinking:
“Ultimately, it is not we who define thinking, it is thinking that defines us”.
(Carey, Foltz, & Allan (Newsweek, February 7, 1983)
Although many psychologists and others have proposed definitions for the term “critical
thinking,” these definitions tend to be similar with take a few minutes and think about your own
definition of critical thinking. What would it include and what would it not include? considerable
overlap among the definitions. In a review of the critical thinking literature, Fischer and Spiker
(2000) found that most definitions for the term “critical thinking” include reasoning/logic,
judgment, metacognition, reflection, questioning, and mental processes.
It involves constructing a situation and supporting the reasoning that went into a
conclusion. We can think of critical thinking as good thinking, but that definition leaves us with
the problem of recognizing what that is and differentiating good thinking from poor thinking.
Critical thinking is more than merely thinking about your own thinking or making
judgments and solving problems. It is effortful and consciously controlled. Critical thinking uses
evidence and reasons and strives to overcome individual biases. Decisions as to which outcomes
should be desirable are embedded in a system of values and may differ from person-to-person,
but the idea that critical thinking makes desirable outcomes more likely provides a way of
defining critical thinking.
In short, Russell’s equation is:
Attitude + Knowledge + Thinking Skills = Critical Thinking
The Critical Thinking Community defined critical thinking as “the intellectually
disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing,
and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience,
reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action”.
(Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1).

16. METACOGNITION 15
Critical thinking has also been referred to as metacognition or the process of “thinking
about thinking” as defined and originally purposed by Flavell (1979).
Is Critical thinking an innate ability?
The evidence is clear. We can get good gains in critical thinking when teachers
deliberately teach for critical thinking. But, what if teachers don’t? Do students become better
thinkers as a routine part of getting a good education? In fact, most do not. Critical thinking does
not automatically result as a byproduct of standard instruction in a content area. Critical thinking
instruction needs to focus overtly and self-consciously on the improvement of thinking, and the
learning experience needs to include multiple examples across domains in order to maximize
transfer.
Unfortunately, students are not typically taught to think or learn independently, and they
rarely “pick up” these skills on their own. Critical thinking is not an innate ability. Although
some students may be naturally inquisitive, they require training to become systematically
analytical, fair, and open-minded in their pursuit of knowledge. With these skills, students can
become confident in their reasoning and apply their critical thinking ability to any content area or
discipline (Lundquist, 1999). Critical thinking is often compared to the scientific method; it is a
systematic and procedural approach to the process of thinking (Scriven & Paul, 2007). Just as
students learn the process of the scientific method, they must also learn the process of critically
thinking.
Example of critical thinking:
In thinking about critical thinking, consider, for example, someone in need of money who
decides to remedy this problem with a trip to the racetrack where he bets on a pretty filly named
“Handsome Singer.” There is some (small) chance that he will “win big” if his horse comes in,
but this is not an example of critical thinking, even if he reflected on his actions and Handsome
Singer was the first to cross the finish line. The most likely outcome is that he will lose the
money he bet, surely an undesirable outcome. On the other hand, suppose that he invested his
money in a “blue chip” stock instead of betting it on “Handsome Singer.” There is some chance
that he will lose his money with this strategy, but on average, in the long run, the likelihood of
the desirable outcome of having more money is much higher with the stock investment than it is

17. METACOGNITION 16
by betting at the race track. The investment is a rational or reasoned course of action, but it
cannot guarantee a desirable outcome. The future is always unknown and there can never be
guarantees about the future, even for the best of thinkers. A substantial increase in the likelihood
of a desirable outcome is the best that critical thinking can promise, and it is the best hope for the
future that anyone can offer.
How to think critically?
The more you know the more capable you are of making decisions that will get you what
you want. First pick a subject small or big it does not matter. Second answer the following
questions who? What? where? and when? Now you are ready to apply critical thinking by asking
how and why for every single piece of information you can find. And then never stop asking
those questions until you have confirmed every fact for yourself. Never be afraid of asking how
or why because it’s in the how and why that we find ourselves in history and find answers to
questions. We did not even know had this is important because more you know good information
you can filter from the bad.
Why critical thinking is important?
Critical thinking skills are important because they enable students “to deal effectively
with social, scientific, and practical problems”. Simply put, students who are able to think
critically are able to solve problems effectively. Merely having knowledge or information is not
enough. To be effective in the workplace (and in their personal lives), students must be able to
solve problems to make effective decisions; they must be able to think critically.
 Encourages independency
Learning how to think critically teaches you to be more independent. You do not
rely on others and you take full ownership of your weaknesses this helps you avoid
mistakes, improve your judgmental and evaluation skills.
 Improves your self-evaluation
Self-evaluation is a procedure to systematically observe, analyze and value your
own professional action and its results in order to stabilize or improve it. This can take

18. METACOGNITION 17
place on an individual or on an organizational level. To self-evaluate means that people
explore and evaluate their own professional work.
Basically thinking with reason and making logical justifications help reflects your
own values and decisions in good way.
 Promotes good language and presentation skills
By thinking critically, you can present your facts in an organize manner analyzing
your data logically helps you to express your ideas more effectively.
 Encourages creativity and innovation
By thinking out of the box you come up with new ideas and creative solutions
allowing you to explore you to alternative options critical thinking freeze your mind and
motivates you to understand other situations around you.
 Encourages good decision making
Being a good, systematic and logical thinker allows you to coherently outline
possible solution to your problem by doing that you can then easily visualize the best of
these solutions and thus applied accordingly
 Encourages scientific discoveries and theories
Science involves theory creation however in order to confirm these scientific
theories both experimentation and reason are necessary so critical thinking is always the
main foundation of science.
 Keeps us up to date with our 21st century economy
As we know our economy today is based on information and technology it is
changing quickly and effectively. Analyzing information and solving problems
systematically helps us adopt to this fast changing work place.
Barriers in critical thinking:
 Lack of training
 Lack of information
 Preconceptions
 Time constraints

19. METACOGNITION 18
Explanation:
First, teachers often are not trained in critical thinking methodology. Elementary and
secondary teachers know their content and receive training in the methods of instruction, but
little if any of their training is devoted specifically to how to teach critical thinking skills. Post-
secondary instructors pursue additional content-based instruction during graduate school, but
often have no formal methodological training, much less skill-based instruction. Second, few
instructional materials provide critical thinking resources (Scriven & Paul, 2007). Some
textbooks provide chapter-based critical thinking discussion questions, but instructional materials
often lack additional critical thinking resources. Third, both teachers and students have
preconceptions about the content that blocks their ability to think critically about the material.
Preconceptions such as personal bias partiality prohibit critical thinking because they obviate
analytical skills such as being fair, open-minded, and inquisitive about a topic (Kang & Howren,
2004). For example, many business educators still continue using two spaces after ending
punctuation even though typeface experts have documented that today’s proportional fonts are
designed for one space. A critical analysis of the information provided on this typesetting topic
would support the use of a single space; however, strong biases for two spaces preclude many
business teachers (predominantly typing teachers) from changing their opinion and adopting the
acceptable procedure. Finally, time constraints are barriers to integrating critical thinking skills
in the classroom. Instructors often have a great deal of content to cover within a short time
period. When the focus is on content rather than student learning, shortcuts such as lectures and
objective tests become the norm. Lecturing is faster and easier than integrating project-based
learning opportunities. Objective tests are faster to take (and grade) than subjective assessments.
However, research indicates that lecturing is not the best method of instruction, and objective
tests are not the best method of assessment (Broadbear, 2003; Brodie & Irving, 2007).
Relationship between self-efficacy and critical thinking:
In general, self-efficacy as a motivational construct has a main role in the development of
critical thinking. In a broad theoretical framework, Whitehead considers learners' motivations
and interests as important factors affecting their critical thinking (Myers, 1992). From the one
hand, students' positive attitudes to and beliefs in their abilities result in their motivation and in
the other hand, non-motivation is an obstacle to critical thinking. As self-efficacy beliefs are

20. METACOGNITION 19
described as the main components of behavior, especially those of behavioral change, they can
effectively predict critical thinking abilities (Sang, Valcke, Braak &Tondeur, 2010). Wanga and
Yi Wub(2008) found that self-efficacy is a good predictor of using high level learning strategies,
such as critical thinking. Bandura and Lock (2003) believe that self-efficacy creates motivation
and improves performance. Such self-efficacy imposed motivation results in the improvement of
critical thinking skills. Since self-efficacy as a motivational factor mainly affects critical thinking
and the lack of sufficient motivation is an obstacle to critical thinking development, this study
aimed to investigated the possible relationship between students critical thinking and self-
efficacy.
Relationship between critical thinking and decision making:
I feel decision-making is an action. It is the destination of logical and analytical problem
solving which is based in fact. Once the destination is reached, action is taken according to the
resolution reached. Decision-making is the product of critical thinking. I believe that critical
thinking and decision-making are inter-twined because you can't have one without the other. When
you are trying to decide on something, you begin a critical thinking process. During this process,
one evaluates information on a given problem. The process of reaching logical conclusions,
solving problems, analyzing factual information, and taking appropriate actions based on the
conclusions are called decision-making. While critical thinking and decision-making are
interrelated and rely on one another, they are also independent. Critical thinking does not guarantee
that a decision will be made and decisions can be made without processing information logically.
There are benefits to being a critical thinker. It allows you to process problems or information in a
systematical and logical fashion.

21. METACOGNITION 20
Sheza Abbas
Roll no 32
Conclusion
In the end we can conclude this topic as we know flavell said metacognition is
the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes, it means that the process of cognition
is directly related to our mental processes,memory,thinking. Metacognitive thinking strategies
allow people to be aware of their own learning and memory and improve them.
Metacognitionand Executive Function: A Dynamic Relationshipof Cognitive
Functioning
Metacognition and Executive Function both help with behavior regulation, problem-solving, and
more — skills that are crucial to success in school and in life. These two sets of cognitive
processes have more in common than not, but they’ve traditionally been studied separately rather
than in conjunction by research communities.
Metacognitive thinking has been studied by researchers conducting experiments in natural
environments to observe and gather information about practical applications. Executive function
has largely been studied by cognitive neuroscientist Metacognitive strategies and executive
function skills can both be taught and have similar timetables of development, but metacognition
is considered to be the behavioral output of executive functions. For example, metacognitive
skills are crucial in reading comprehension. In order to understand text, readers must be able to
monitor their comprehension and apply strategies to improve it, such as re-reading a sentence
that wasn’t fully processed. Executive Functions skills assist with this, such as using working
memory to hold in mind the information at the beginning of a passage to the end. Executive
function also helps to support the focus and reflection needed to complete these metacognitive
tasks. Therefore, the relation between these two cognitive processes is dynamic — they function
separately but are interconnected with an emphasis on how executive function skills link to
brain structure and neural networks.

22. METACOGNITION 21
The neural basis of metacognitive ability
The very notion that an individual can turn his or her mental faculties inward was considered
logically incoherent by Comte, who thought it paradoxical that the mind might divide into two to
permit self-observation . We now understand the brain as a network of regions working in
concert, and thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that one set of regions (such as the prefrontal cortex:
PFC) might process, hierarchically, information arising from lower levels (such as primary
sensory regions). Indeed, several recent models of local and large-scale brain function rely on
hierarchy as a principal organizing factor . That self-knowledge, and its accuracy, is under neural
control is supported by mounting evidence in the neuropsychological literature, some of which
will be reviewed later in this article. For example, in cases of traumatic injury to the frontal
lobes, individuals may have deficits in self-knowledge of altered cognition and personality, as
measured by the discrepancy between reports from the patient and family members . Such
studies have focused on alterations in self-related, or auto noetic, metacognition , but analogous
discrepancies can be measured in assessments of task performance in healthy individuals.
By focusing on self-reports about memory performance metacognitive reports Flavell provided a
systematic framework for the study of self-knowledge in healthy individuals . Here, the
metacognitive report is treated as an object of study in its own right, and the accuracy of such
reports (as dissociated from accuracy, or performance, on the task itself) provide an empirical
scaffold upon which to build studies of self-knowledge . An influential model of metacognition
was developed to account for behavioral dissociations between the ‘object’ level cognition, or,
more correctly, task performance and the ‘meta’ level, conceptualized as both monitoring and
controlling the object level . This approach shares similarities with an influential model of
executive function . The two-level framework has been extended to study monitoring of
perception , decision-making , sense of agency and learning . To the extent that the Meta level
imperfectly monitors the object level, self-reports about cognition will be inaccurate, perhaps
manifesting as a lack of awareness of the object level
Metacognitionin Teaching Geoscience Teaching MetacognitionImproves
Learning

23. METACOGNITION 22
Metacognition is a critically important, yet often overlooked component of learning. Effective
learning involves planning and goal-setting, monitoring one's progress, and adapting as needed.
All of these activities are metacognitive in nature. By teaching students these skills - all of which
can be learned - we can improve student learning. There are three critical steps to teaching
metacognition:
1. Teaching students that their ability to learn is mutable
2. Teaching planning and goal-setting
3. Giving students ample opportunities to practice monitoring their learning and adapting as
necessary
Teachstudents that the ability to learn is not a fixed quantity
The key to a student's ability to become a self-regulated (i.e., metacognitive) learner is
understanding that one's ability to learn is a skill that develops over time rather than a fixed trait,
inherited at birth. Students who believe that the ability to learn can improve over time earn
higher grades, even after controlling for prior achievement (Henderson and Decks, 1990).
Self-Efficacy and improvement of Grades
The students set reasonable learning goals for themselves and have the self-efficacy to choose
and use productive learning strategies. These strategies then result in learning gains. Moreover,
students can be taught that their ability to learn can improve over time; those who learn this
simple lesson show increased motivation to learn and improved grades (Aronson et al., 2002;
Blackwell et al., 2007).
Teachstudents how to setgoals and plan to meet them

24. METACOGNITION 23
Many students don't set explicit learning goals for themselves, or make plans to meet any goals
they might have. Yet students who received as little as half an hour of training (in the form of
one-to-one tutoring) on the process of self-regulated learning outperformed students who did not
receive the training in several important ways. First and foremost, they learned more. In addition,
they planned how they would spend their time in the learning task, spent more of their time in
goal-oriented searching, and periodically reminded themselves of their current goal (Azevedo
and Cromley, 2004).
Give students opportunities to practice self-monitoring and adapting
Accurate self-monitoring is quite difficult. Many first-year college students, in particular, are
over-confident. For example, first-year students at Carnegie Mellon University were asked what
grades they anticipated earning in their science and math courses. While results varied somewhat
by subject area, more than 90% of students in biology, chemistry, physics and calculus courses
expected to earn A's or B's. These expectations were clearly not realistic and suggested some
problems on the horizon for these students
Example: lecture wrappers
Prior to beginning the day's lecture, the instructor gives students some tips on active listening. In
particular, students are encouraged to think about the key points of the lecture as they listen and
take notes. At the end of the lecture, students write what they think the three most important
ideas of the lecture were on an index card. After they hand those in, the instructor reveals the
three most important ideas from the lecture. This immediate feedback allows students to monitor
their active listening strategies. After three successive lecture wrappers (with successively less
faculty support, from a mini-lecture on active listening to no advance warning), student
responses increasingly matched the instructor's: 45% the first time, 68% the second time, and
75% the third (Lovett, 2008).
Example: homework wrappers

25. METACOGNITION 24
Before beginning a homework assignment, students answer a brief set of self-assessment
questions focusing on skills they should be monitoring. Students complete the homework as
usual, and then answer a follow-up set of self-assessment questions. For example, for a
homework assignment about vector arithmetic, a student may be asked (beforehand) "How
quickly and easily can you solve problems that involve vector subtraction?" and (afterward)
"Now that you have completed this homework, how quickly and easily can you solve
problems that involve vector subtraction?" Student reports from the homework wrappers
ranged from noting that the practice exercises were helpful to them to commenting that they
were probably overconfident before doing the homework problems.
RelationshipbetweenMeta-cognitionand Personalitycharacteristicsin
Attitude toward Critical thinking in Students
Theories of personality (e.g. Caprara et al. 1993) indicate that associations between personality
traits and human health outcomes might be mediated, at least partially, by individual cognitive
styles. Personality traits have been defined as a set of internal systems that emerge and operate
during the entire life span, thus facilitating personal adjustment to different life contexts . This
set of self-regulatory systems guide cognitive processes by activating particular needs and
thoughts. Specifically, personality traits represent salient ways in which individuals differ in their
metacognitive style, described as sets of strategies involved in the planning, monitoring, and
regulation of cognition . In support of this view, previous research has demonstrated the
influence of different personality traits on metacognitive style. There are theoretical reasons to
expect personality traits to be differently associated to specific metacognitions.
For example,
Personality traits pertaining to the affective domain (e.g. emotional stability) might be more
strongly associated to the need to control one’s own thoughts . Conversely, personality traits
related to the cognitive domain, such as conscientiousness, might be more strongly associated to
cognitive self-consciousness. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first attempt to link the five
personality traits to the five specific metacognitions described above, and not only to general
metacognitive style. We propose that individual characteristics, such as personality traits, may

26. METACOGNITION 25
lead to the activation of different metacognitions and, in turn, have an effect on positive mental
health.
AT the end
 "Metacognitive skills and beliefs about learning have consequences for students' learning
and performance.
 "Teaching metacognition - introducing these new skills and beliefs, and giving students
practice at applying them - improves students' learning.
 "Low-cost interventions can have big payoffs."
As Iqbal said
“Inner experience is
only one source of
human knowledge”

27. METACOGNITION 26
Refrences:
i https://achieveit360.com/metacognition-and-aha-moments-of-learning/
ii http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/metacognition-and-learning/
https://www.selbstevaluation.de/home/
https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/277811/1-s2.0-S1877042811X00071/1-s2.0-
S1877042811007671/main.pdf?x-amz-security-
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1052562902239247
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08923640109527071
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01443410903289423
https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0fVADwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Importance+
of+critical+thinking+skills&ots=Wc7R7A-
kJJ&sig=CHolGP6owSp2la_CqeZ4IbX4E_M#v=onepage&q=Importance%20of%20critical%20thinking%20
skills&f=false