Organizational Behavior

ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIORS T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
W W W . P R E N H A L L . C O M / R O B B I N S
T E N T H E D I T I O N
© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook

© 2003 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 1–2
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER,
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. Define organizational behavior (OB).
2. Describe what managers do.
3. Explain the value of the systematic study of
OB.
4. List the major challenges and opportunities
for managers to use OB concepts.
5. Identify the contributions made by major
behavioral science disciplines to OB.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

6. Describe why managers require a knowledge
of OB.
7. Explain the need for a contingency approach
to the study of OB.
8. Identify the three levels of analysis in this
book’s model.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES(cont’d)

What Managers DoWhat Managers Do
Managerial Activities
• Make decisions
• Allocate resources
• Direct activities of others
to attain goals
Managerial Activities
• Make decisions
• Allocate resources
• Direct activities of others
to attain goals

Where Managers WorkWhere Managers Work

Management FunctionsManagement Functions
ManagementManagement
FunctionsFunctions
ManagementManagement
FunctionsFunctions
PlanningPlanningPlanningPlanning OrganizingOrganizingOrganizingOrganizing
LeadingLeadingLeadingLeadingControllingControllingControllingControlling

Management Functions (cont’d)Management Functions (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-1a
Mintzberg’s Managerial RolesMintzberg’s Managerial Roles

E X H I B I T 1-1b
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-1c
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

Management SkillsManagement Skills

Effective Versus Successful Managerial
Activities (Luthans)
Effective Versus Successful Managerial
Activities (Luthans)
1. Traditional management
• Decision making, planning, and controlling
2. Communications
• Exchanging routine information and processing
paperwork
3. Human resource management
• Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing,
and training
4. Networking
• Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others
1. Traditional management
• Decision making, planning, and controlling
2. Communications
• Exchanging routine information and processing
paperwork
3. Human resource management
• Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing,
and training
4. Networking
• Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others

E X H I B I T 1-2
Allocation of Activities by TimeAllocation of Activities by Time

Enter Organizational BehaviorEnter Organizational Behavior

Contributing Disciplines to the OB FieldContributing Disciplines to the OB Field
E X H I B I T 1-3a

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 1-3b

E X H I B I T 1-3c

E X H I B I T 1-3d

E X H I B I T 1-3f

There Are Few Absolutes in OBThere Are Few Absolutes in OB
ContingencyContingency
VariablesVariablesx y

Challenges and Opportunity for OBChallenges and Opportunity for OB
 Responding to Globalization
 Managing Workforce Diversity
 Improving Quality and Productivity
 Responding to the Labor Shortage
 Improving Customer Service

Challenges and Opportunity for OB (cont’d)Challenges and Opportunity for OB (cont’d)
 Improving People Skills
 Empowering People
 Coping with “Temporariness”
 Stimulation Innovation and Change
 Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts
 Improving Ethical Behavior

E X H I B I T 1-6
Basic OB Model, Stage IBasic OB Model, Stage I

The Dependent VariablesThe Dependent Variables
x
y

The Dependent Variables (cont’d)The Dependent Variables (cont’d)

The Independent VariablesThe Independent Variables
IndependentIndependent
VariablesVariables
IndependentIndependent
VariablesVariables
Individual-LevelIndividual-Level
VariablesVariables
Individual-LevelIndividual-Level
VariablesVariables
OrganizationOrganization
System-LevelSystem-Level
VariablesVariables
OrganizationOrganization
System-LevelSystem-Level
VariablesVariables
Group-LevelGroup-Level
VariablesVariables
Group-LevelGroup-Level
VariablesVariables

1. Define the key biographical characteristics.
2. Identify two types of ability.
3. Shape the behavior of others.
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
6. Practice self-management
7. Exhibit effective discipline skills.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics

AbilityAbility

• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory
Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
Dimensions of
Intellectual Ability
E X H I B I T 2-1

Physical AbilityPhysical Ability

Other Factors
• Body coordination
• Balance
• Stamina
Other Factors
• Body coordination
• Balance
• Stamina
Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
• Dynamic strength
• Trunk strength
• Static strength
• Explosive strength
Strength Factors
• Dynamic strength
• Trunk strength
• Static strength
• Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
• Extent flexibility
• Dynamic flexibility
Flexibility Factors
• Extent flexibility
• Dynamic flexibility
E X H I B I T 2-2

Ability-Job
Fit
The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit
Employee’sEmployee’s
AbilitiesAbilities
Job’s AbilityJob’s Ability
RequirementsRequirements

LearningLearning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience

Theories of LearningTheories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned response

Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement

Key Concepts
• Attention processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Key Concepts
• Attention processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2-4
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio

Intermittent Schedules of ReinforcementIntermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
E X H I B I T 2-5a

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2-5b

Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification
Problem-solving Model
• Identify critical behaviors
• Develop baseline data
• Identify behavioral consequences
• Apply intervention
• Evaluate performance improvement
Problem-solving Model
• Identify critical behaviors
• Develop baseline data
• Identify behavioral consequences
• Apply intervention
• Evaluate performance improvement

OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications
 Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
 Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.

1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values.
2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce.
3. Identify the five value dimensions of national
culture.
4. Contrast the three components of an attitude.
5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes
and behavior.
6. Identify the role consistency plays in attitudes.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

7. State the relationship between job satisfaction
and behavior.
8. Identify four employee responses to
dissatisfaction.

ValuesValues

Types of Values –- Rokeach Value SurveyTypes of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey

Values in
the
Rokeach
Survey
Values in
the
Rokeach
Survey
E X H I B I T 3-1a

Values in
the
Rokeach
Survey
(cont’d)
Values in
the
Rokeach
Survey
(cont’d)
E X H I B I T 3-1b

Mean Value Rankings of
Executives, Union
Members, and Activists
Mean Value Rankings of
Executives, Union
Members, and Activists
E X H I B I T 3-2

Dominant Work Values in Today’s WorkforceDominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce
E X H I B I T 3-3

Values, Loyalty, and Ethical BehaviorValues, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Climate inEthical Climate in
the Organizationthe Organization
Ethical Climate inEthical Climate in
the Organizationthe Organization
Ethical ValuesEthical Values
and Behaviors ofand Behaviors of
LeadersLeaders

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing CulturesHofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures

Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

The GLOBE
Framework
for
Assessing
Cultures
The GLOBE
Framework
for
Assessing
Cultures
• Assertiveness
• Future Orientation
• Gender differentiation
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Power distance
• Individual/collectivism
• In-group collectivism
• Power orientation
• Humane orientation
• Assertiveness
• Future Orientation
• Gender differentiation
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Power distance
• Individual/collectivism
• In-group collectivism
• Power orientation
• Humane orientation
E X H I B I T 3-4

AttitudesAttitudes

Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes

The Theory of Cognitive DissonanceThe Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance
• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance
• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance

Measuring the A-B RelationshipMeasuring the A-B Relationship
 Recent research indicates that the attitudes (A)
significantly predict behaviors (B) when
moderating variables are taken into account.
Moderating Variables
• Importance of the attitude
• Specificity of the attitude
• Accessibility of the attitude
• Social pressures on the individual
• Direct experience with the attitude
Moderating Variables
• Importance of the attitude
• Specificity of the attitude
• Accessibility of the attitude
• Social pressures on the individual
• Direct experience with the attitude

Self-Perception TheorySelf-Perception Theory

An Application: Attitude SurveysAn Application: Attitude Surveys

Sample Attitude SurveySample Attitude Survey
E X H I B I T 3-5

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction
 Measuring Job Satisfaction
– Single global rating
– Summation score
 How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?
– Job satisfaction declined to 50.7% in 2000
– Decline attributed to:
• Pressures to increase productivity
• Less control over work

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee
Performance
The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee
Performance
 Satisfaction and Productivity
– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive.
– Worker productivity is higher in organizations with
more satisfied workers.
 Satisfaction and Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
 Satisfaction and Turnover
– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
– Organizations take actions to cultivate high performers
and to weed out lower performers.

Responses to Job DissatisfactionResponses to Job Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 3-6

How Employees Can Express DissatisfactionHow Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction

Job Satisfaction and OCBJob Satisfaction and OCB
 Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
– Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are
trusting of the organization are more willing to engage
in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of
their job.

1. Explain the factors that determine an
individual’s personality.
2. Describe the MBTI personality framework.
3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five
personality model.
4. Explain the impact of job typology on the
personality/job performance relationship.
5. Differentiate emotions from moods.
6. Contrast felt versus displayed emotions.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

7. Read emotions.
8. Explain gender-differences in emotions.
9. Describe external constraints on emotions.
10. Apply concepts on emotions to OB issues.

What is Personality?What is Personality?
E X H I B I T 4-1

Personality TraitsPersonality Traits
Personality Determinants
• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation
Personality Determinants
• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation

The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorThe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Types
• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)
Personality Types
• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

Sixteen
Primary
Traits
Sixteen
Primary
Traits
E X H I B I T 4-2

The Big Five ModelThe Big Five Model

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OBMajor Personality Attributes Influencing OB
 Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self-esteem
 Self-monitoring
 Propensity for risk taking
 Type A personality

Locus of ControlLocus of Control

MachiavellianismMachiavellianism
Conditions Favoring High Machs
• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions
Conditions Favoring High Machs
• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions

Self-Esteem and Self-MonitoringSelf-Esteem and Self-Monitoring

Risk-TakingRisk-Taking
 High Risk-taking Managers
– Make quicker decisions.
– Use less information to make decisions.
– Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations.
 Low Risk-taking Managers
– Are slower to make decisions.
– Require more information before making decisions.
– Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.
 Risk Propensity
– Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job
requirements should be beneficial to organizations.

Personality TypesPersonality Types

Achieving Personality-Job FitAchieving Personality-Job Fit
Personality Types
• Realistic
• Investigative
• Social
• Conventional
• Enterprising
• Artistic
Personality Types
• Realistic
• Investigative
• Social
• Conventional
• Enterprising
• Artistic

Holland’s
Typology of
Personality
and
Congruent
Occupations
Holland’s
Typology of
Personality
and
Congruent
Occupations
E X H I B I T 4-3

Relationships
among
Occupational
Personality
Types
Relationships
among
Occupational
Personality
Types
E X H I B I T 4-4

Emotions- Why Emotions Were Ignored in OBEmotions- Why Emotions Were Ignored in OB
 The “myth of rationality”
– Organizations are not emotion-free.
 Emotions of any kind are disruptive to
organizations.
– Original OB focus was solely on the effects of strong
negative emotions that interfered with individual and
organizational efficiency.

What Are Emotions?What Are Emotions?
MoodsMoods
Feelings that tend to beFeelings that tend to be
less intense thanless intense than
emotions and that lack aemotions and that lack a
contextual stimulus.contextual stimulus.
MoodsMoods
Feelings that tend to beFeelings that tend to be
less intense thanless intense than
emotions and that lack aemotions and that lack a
contextual stimulus.contextual stimulus.
EmotionsEmotions
Intense feelings that areIntense feelings that are
directed at someone ordirected at someone or
something.something.
EmotionsEmotions
Intense feelings that areIntense feelings that are
directed at someone ordirected at someone or
something.something.
AffectAffect
A broad range of emotionsA broad range of emotions
that people experience.that people experience.
AffectAffect
A broad range of emotionsA broad range of emotions
that people experience.that people experience.

What Are Emotions? (cont’d)What Are Emotions? (cont’d)

Felt versus Displayed EmotionsFelt versus Displayed Emotions

Emotion DimensionsEmotion Dimensions
 Variety of emotions
– Positive
– Negative
 Intensity of emotions
– Personality
– Job Requirements
 Frequency and duration of emotions
– How often emotions are exhibited.
– How long emotions are displayed.

Facial Expressions Convey EmotionsFacial Expressions Convey Emotions
E X H I B I T 4-5

Emotion ContinuumEmotion Continuum
 The closer any two emotions are to each other on
the continuum, the more likely people are to
confuse them.
E X H I B I T 4-6

Gender and EmotionsGender and Emotions
 Women
– Can show greater emotional expression.
– Experience emotions more intensely.
– Display emotions more frequently.
– Are more comfortable in expressing emotions.
– Are better at reading others’ emotions.
 Men
– Believe that displaying emotions is inconsistent with
the male image.
– Are innately less able to read and to identify with
others’ emotions.
– Have less need to seek social approval by showing
positive emotions.

External Constraints on EmotionsExternal Constraints on Emotions
OrganizationalOrganizational
InfluencesInfluences
OrganizationalOrganizational
CulturalCultural
CulturalCultural
IndividualIndividual
EmotionsEmotions
IndividualIndividual
EmotionsEmotions

OB Applications of Understanding EmotionsOB Applications of Understanding Emotions
 Ability and Selection
– Emotions affect employee effectiveness.
 Decision Making
– Emotions are an important part of the decision-making
process in organizations.
 Motivation
– Emotional commitment to work and high motivation are
strongly linked.
 Leadership
– Emotions are important to acceptance of messages
from organizational leaders.

OB Applications of Understanding EmotionsOB Applications of Understanding Emotions
 Interpersonal Conflict
– Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions are
strongly intertwined.
 Deviant Workplace Behaviors
– Negative emotions can lead to employee deviance in
the form of actions that violate established norms and
threaten the organization and its members.
• Productivity failures
• Property theft and destruction
• Political actions
• Personal aggression

Ability and SelectionAbility and Selection
 Emotional Intelligence (EI)
– Self-awareness
– Self-management
– Self-motivation
– Empathy
– Social skills
 Research Findings
– High EI scores, not high
IQ scores, characterize
high performers.
 Emotional Intelligence (EI)
– Self-awareness
– Self-management
– Self-motivation
– Empathy
– Social skills
 Research Findings
– High EI scores, not high
IQ scores, characterize
high performers.

1. Explain how two people can see the same
thing and interpret it differently.
2. List three determinants of attribution.
3. Describe how shortcuts can assist in or
distort our judgment of others.
4. Explain how perception affects the decision-
making process.
5. Outline the six steps in the rational decision-
making model.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

6. Describe the action of a boundedly rational
decision maker.
7. Identify the conditions in which individuals
are most likely to use intuition in decision
making.
8. Describe four styles of decision making.
9. Define heuristics and explain how they bias
decisions.
10. Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
• People’s behavior isPeople’s behavior is
based on theirbased on their
perception of whatperception of what
reality is, not onreality is, not on
reality itself.reality itself.
• The world as it isThe world as it is
perceived is the worldperceived is the world
that is behaviorallythat is behaviorally
important.important.
• People’s behavior isPeople’s behavior is
based on theirbased on their
perception of whatperception of what
reality is, not onreality is, not on
reality itself.reality itself.
• The world as it isThe world as it is
perceived is the worldperceived is the world
that is behaviorallythat is behaviorally
important.important.

Factors That
Influence
Perception
Factors That
Influence
Perception
E X H I B I T 5-1

Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others
Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory E X H I B I T 5-2

Errors and Biases in AttributionsErrors and Biases in Attributions

Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersFrequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Specific Applications in OrganizationsSpecific Applications in Organizations
 Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers’
judgments of applicants.
 Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or
higher performance of employees reflects
preconceived leader expectations about employee
capabilities.
 Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.
 Employee Effort
– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
Perceptions
of the
decision
maker
Perceptions
of the
decision
maker
Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model
1. Problem clarity
2. Known options
3. Clear preferences
4. Constant
preferences
5. No time or cost
constraints
6. Maximum payoff
1. Problem clarity
2. Known options
3. Clear preferences
4. Constant
preferences
5. No time or cost
constraints
6. Maximum payoff

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making ModelSteps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
E X H I B I T 5-3

The Three Components of CreativityThe Three Components of Creativity
E X H I B I T 5-4

How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations
Organizations

Organizations (cont’d)
Organizations (cont’d)
 How/Why problems are identified
– Visibility over importance of problem
• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”
– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)
 Alternative Development
– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves
problem.
– Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem
solving through successive limited comparison of
alternatives to the current alternative in effect.

Making ChoicesMaking Choices

Decision-Style ModelDecision-Style Model
E X H I B I T 5-5

Organizational Constraints on Decision MakersOrganizational Constraints on Decision Makers
 Performance Evaluation
– Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.
 Reward Systems
– Decision makers make action choices that are favored
by the organization.
 Formal Regulations
– Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative
choices of decision makers.
 System-imposed Time Constraints
– Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
 Historical Precedents
– Past decisions influence current decisions.

Cultural Differences in Decision MakingCultural Differences in Decision Making
 Problems selected
 Time orientation
 Importance of logic and rationality
 Belief in the ability of people to solve problems
 Preference for collect decision making

Ethics in Decision MakingEthics in Decision Making
 Ethical Decision Criteria
– Utilitarianism
• Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.
– Rights
• Respecting and protecting basic rights of
individuals.
– Justice
• Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.

Ethics in Decision MakingEthics in Decision Making
 Ethics and National Culture
– There are no global ethical standards.
– The ethical principles of global organizations that
reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary
for high standards and consistent practices.

1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy.
3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.
4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
5. List the characteristics that high achievers
prefer in a job.
6. Summarize the types of goals that increase
performance.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

7. State the impact of underrewarding
employees.
8. Clarify key relationships in expectancy theory.
9. Explain how the contemporary theories of
motivation complement each other.

Defining MotivationDefining Motivation
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
E X H I B I T 6-1

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Holland’s
Typology of
Personality
and
Congruent
Occupations
Holland’s
Typology of
Personality
and
Congruent
Occupations
E X H I B I T 6-2

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Comparison of
Satisfiers and
Dissatisfiers
Comparison of
Satisfiers and
Dissatisfiers
E X H I B I T 6-3
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job satisfaction

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction
and Dissatisfaction
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction
and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6-4
Presence Absence

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Core Needs
Existence: provision of
basic material
requirements.
Relatedness: desire for
relationships.
Growth: desire for
personal development.
Core Needs
Existence: provision of
basic material
requirements.
Relatedness: desire for
relationships.
Growth: desire for
personal development.
Concepts:
More than one need can
be operative at the same
time.
If a higher-level need
cannot be fulfilled, the
desire to satisfy a lower-
level need increases.
Concepts:
More than one need can
be operative at the same
time.
If a higher-level need
cannot be fulfilled, the
desire to satisfy a lower-
level need increases.

David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs
nAch
nPow
nAff

Matching Achievers and JobsMatching Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6-5

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation TheoryFlow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Ken Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic MotivationKen Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation
 Employees are intrinsically motivated when
rewards an employee gets from work result from:
– Choice– the ability to freely self-select and perform
task activities.
– Competence– the sense of accomplishment from
skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities.
– Meaningfulness– pursuing a task that matters in the
larger scheme of things.
– Progress– the feeling of significant advancement in
achieving the task’s purpose.

Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6-7

Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded employees produce more
than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but
do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce
lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than
equitably rewarded employees
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded employees produce more
than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but
do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce
lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger
quantities of lower-quality piece work than
equitably rewarded employees

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
E X H I B I T 6-8

Performance DimensionsPerformance Dimensions
E X H I B I T 6-9

Integrating
Contemporary
Theories of
Motivation
Integrating
Contemporary
Theories of
Motivation
E X H I B I T 6-10

1. Identify the four ingredients common to MBO
programs.
2. Explain why managers might want to use
employee involvement programs.
3. Contrast participative management with
employee involvement.
4. Define quality circles.
5. Explain how ESOPs can increase employee
motivation.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

6. Contrast gain-sharing and profit-sharing.
7. Describe the link between skill-based pay
plans and motivation theories.
8. Explain how flexible benefits turn benefits into
motivators.
9. Contrast the challenges of motivating
professional employees versus low-skilled
employees.

What is MBO?What is MBO?
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback

Why MBO’s FailWhy MBO’s Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities

Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives
E X H I B I T 7-1

Employee Recognition ProgramsEmployee Recognition Programs
 Types of programs
– Personal attention
– Expressing interest
– Approval
– Appreciation for a job well done
 Benefits of programs
– Fulfills employees’ desire for recognition.
– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors.
– Enhances group/team cohesiveness and motivation.
– Encourages employee suggestions for improving
processes and cutting costs.

What is Employee Involvement?What is Employee Involvement?

Examples of Employee Involvement ProgramsExamples of Employee Involvement Programs

Examples of Employee Involvement Programs
(cont’d)
(cont’d)

(cont’d)
(cont’d)

How a Typical
Quality Circle
Operates
How a Typical
Quality Circle
Operates
E X H I B I T 7-4

(cont’d)
(cont’d)

Variable Pay ProgramsVariable Pay Programs

Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)

Skill-Based Pay PlansSkill-Based Pay Plans
Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans:
1. Provides staffing flexibility.
2. Facilitates communication across the organization.
3. Lessens “protection of territory” behaviors.
4. Meets the needs of employees for advancement
(without promotion).
5. Leads to performance improvements.
Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans:
1. Provides staffing flexibility.
2. Facilitates communication across the organization.
3. Lessens “protection of territory” behaviors.
4. Meets the needs of employees for advancement
(without promotion).
5. Leads to performance improvements.

Skill-Based Pay Plans (cont’d)Skill-Based Pay Plans (cont’d)
Drawbacks of Skill-based Pay Plans:
1. Lack of additional learning opportunities that will
increase employee pay.
2. Continuing to pay employees for skills that have
become obsolete.
3. Paying for skills which are of no immediate use
to the organization.
4. Paying for a skill, not for the level of employee
performance for the particular skill.
Drawbacks of Skill-based Pay Plans:
1. Lack of additional learning opportunities that will
increase employee pay.
2. Continuing to pay employees for skills that have
become obsolete.
3. Paying for skills which are of no immediate use
to the organization.
4. Paying for a skill, not for the level of employee
performance for the particular skill.

Flexible BenefitsFlexible Benefits
Flexible Spending Plans:
allow employees to use
their tax-free benefit
dollars to purchase
benefits and pay service
premiums.
Flexible Spending Plans:
allow employees to use
their tax-free benefit
dollars to purchase
benefits and pay service
premiums.
Modular Plans:
predesigned benefits
packages for specific
groups of employees.
Modular Plans:
predesigned benefits
packages for specific
groups of employees.
Core-plus Plans:
a core of essential
benefits and a menu-like
selection of other benefit
options.
Core-plus Plans:
a core of essential
benefits and a menu-like
selection of other benefit
options.

Special Issues in MotivationSpecial Issues in Motivation
 Motivating Professionals
– Provide challenging projects.
– Allow them the autonomy to be productive.
– Reward with educational opportunities.
– Reward with recognition.
– Express interest in what they are doing.
– Create alternative career paths.
 Motivating Contingent Workers
– Provide opportunity for permanent status.
– Provide opportunities for training.
– Provide equitable pay.

Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
 Motivating the Diversified Workforce
– Provide flexible work, leave, and pay schedules.
– Provide child and elder care benefits.
– Structure working relationships to account for cultural
differences and similarities.
 Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers
– Recruit widely.
– Increase pay and benefits.
– Make jobs more appealing.

Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
 Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks
– Recruit and select employees that fit the job.
– Create a pleasant work environment.
– Mechanize the most distasteful aspects of the job.

1. Differentiate between formal and informal
groups.
2. Compare two models of group development.
3. Explain how group interaction can be
analyzed.
4. Identify the key factors in explaining group
behavior.
5. Explain how role requirements change in
different situations.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

6. Describe how norms exert influence on an
individual’s behavior.
7. Define social loafing and its effect on group
performance.
8. Identify the benefits and disadvantages of
cohesive groups.
9. List the strengths and weaknesses of group
decision making.
10. Contrast the effectiveness of interacting,
brainstorming, nominal and electronic meeting
groups.

Defining and Classifying GroupsDefining and Classifying Groups

Defining and Classifying Groups (cont’d)Defining and Classifying Groups (cont’d)

Why People Join GroupsWhy People Join Groups
• Security
• Status
• Self-esteem
• Affiliation
• Power
• Goal Achievement
E X H I B I T 8-1

Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development

Stages of Group Development (cont’d)Stages of Group Development (cont’d)

Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development
E X H I B I T 8-2

An Alternative Model: For Temporary Groups
with Deadlines
An Alternative Model: For Temporary Groups
with Deadlines
Sequence of actions:
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity
Sequence of actions:
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity

The Punctuated-Equilibrium ModelThe Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
E X H I B I T 8-3

Group Behavior ModelGroup Behavior Model
E X H I B I T 8-4

External Conditions Imposed on the GroupExternal Conditions Imposed on the Group
Imposed Conditions:
• Organization’s overall strategy
• Authority structures
• Formal regulations
• Resource constraints
• Selection process
• Performance and evaluation system
• Organization’s culture
• Physical work setting
Imposed Conditions:
• Organization’s overall strategy
• Authority structures
• Formal regulations
• Resource constraints
• Selection process
• Performance and evaluation system
• Organization’s culture
• Physical work setting

Group Member ResourcesGroup Member Resources
 Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
– Interpersonal skills
• Conflict management and resolution
• Collaborative problem solving
• Communication
– Personality Characteristics
• Sociability
• Initiative
• Openness
• Flexibility

Group Structure - RolesGroup Structure - Roles
 Formal Leadership
– Leadership that is imposed on the group by the
organization.
– Leaders who derive their power from the positions they
occupy in the organizational structure.
– Formal leaders may or may not also be the informal
leaders of the groups in which they function.

Group Structure - Roles (cont’d)Group Structure - Roles (cont’d)

Group Structure - NormsGroup Structure - Norms
Classes of Norms:
• Performance norms
• Appearance norms
• Social arrangement norms
• Allocation of resources
norms
Classes of Norms:
• Performance norms
• Appearance norms
• Social arrangement norms
• Allocation of resources
norms

Group Structure - Norms (cont’d)Group Structure - Norms (cont’d)

Examples of Cards Used in Asch’s StudyExamples of Cards Used in Asch’s Study
E X H I B I T 8-5

Typology of Deviant Workplace BehaviorTypology of Deviant Workplace Behavior
E X H I B I T 8-6

Group Structure - StatusGroup Structure - Status
Group NormsGroup NormsGroup NormsGroup Norms
Status EquityStatus EquityStatus EquityStatus Equity
CultureCultureCultureCulture
Group MemberGroup Member
StatusStatus
Group MemberGroup Member
StatusStatus

Group Structure - SizeGroup Structure - Size
Group Size
PerformanceExpected
Actual (due to
loafing)
Other conclusions:
• Odd number groups do
better than even.
• Groups of 7 or 9 perform
better overall than larger
or smaller groups.
Other conclusions:
• Odd number groups do
better than even.
• Groups of 7 or 9 perform
better overall than larger
or smaller groups.

Group Structure - CompositionGroup Structure - Composition

Group Structure - CohesivenessGroup Structure - Cohesiveness
Increasing group cohesiveness:
1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
3. Increase time members spend together.
4. Increase group status and admission difficultly.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
7. Physically isolate the group.
Increasing group cohesiveness:
1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
3. Increase time members spend together.
4. Increase group status and admission difficultly.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
7. Physically isolate the group.

Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
E X H I B I T 8-7

Group ProcessesGroup Processes

Effects of Group ProcessesEffects of Group Processes
E X H I B I T 8-8
+
–
=

Group TasksGroup Tasks
 Decision-making
– Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about
complex tasks.
– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and
facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.
– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in order
for the group to perform well.

Group Decision MakingGroup Decision Making
 Strengths
– More complete
information
– Increased diversity of
views
– Higher quality of
decisions
– Increased
acceptance of
solutions
 Weaknesses
– More time
consuming
– Increased pressure
to conform
– Domination by one
or a few members
– Ambiguous
responsibility

Group Decision Making (cont’d)Group Decision Making (cont’d)

Group Decision-Making TechniquesGroup Decision-Making Techniques

Evaluating Group EffectivenessEvaluating Group Effectiveness
E X H I B I T 8-10

1. Explain the popularity of teams in
organizations.
2. Contrast teams with groups.
3. Identify four types of teams.
4. Describe conditions when teams are preferred
over individuals.
5. Specify the characteristics of effective teams.
6. Explain how organizations can create team
players.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

7. Describe the advantages and disadvantages
of diversity for work teams.
8. Explain how management can keep teams
from becoming stagnant and rigid.

Why Have Teams Become So PopularWhy Have Teams Become So Popular
 Teams typically outperform individuals.
 Teams use employee talents better.
 Teams are more flexible and responsive to
changes in the environment.
 Teams facilitate employee involvement.
 Teams are an effective way to democratize an
organization and increase motivation.

Team Versus Groups: What’s the DifferenceTeam Versus Groups: What’s the Difference

Comparing Work Groups and Work TeamsComparing Work Groups and Work Teams
E X H I B I T 9-1

Types of TeamsTypes of Teams

Types of Teams (cont’d)Types of Teams (cont’d)
• Task forces
• Committees

Types of Teams (cont’d)Types of Teams (cont’d)
Team Characteristics
1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues
2. A limited social context
3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints
Team Characteristics
1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues
2. A limited social context
3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints

Beware: Teams Aren’t Always the AnswerBeware: Teams Aren’t Always the Answer
 Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:
– Is the work complex and is there a need for different
perspectives?
– Does the work create a common purpose or set of
goals for the group that is larger than the aggregate of
the goals for individuals?
– Are members of the group involved in interdependent
tasks?

Creating Effective TeamsCreating Effective Teams

Creating Effective Teams (cont’d)Creating Effective Teams (cont’d)

A Team-
Effectiveness
Model
A Team-
Effectiveness
Model
E X H I B I T 9-3

Key Roles
of Teams
Key Roles
of Teams
E X H I B I T 9-4

Turning Individuals Into Team PlayersTurning Individuals Into Team Players
 The Challenges
– Overcoming individual resistance to team membership.
– Countering the influence of individualistic cultures.
– Introducing teams in an organization that has
historically valued individual achievement.
 Shaping Team Players
– Selecting employees who can fulfill their team roles.
– Training employees to become team players.
– Reworking the reward system to encourage
cooperative efforts while continuing to recognize
individual contributions.

Contemporary Issues in Managing TeamsContemporary Issues in Managing Teams
 Team Effectiveness and Quality Management
Requires That Teams:
1. Are small enough to be efficient and effective.
2. Are properly trained in required skills.
3. Allocated enough time to work on problems.
4. Are given authority to resolve problems and take
corrective action.
5. Have a designated “champion” to call on when
needed.

Team and Workforce Diversity:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity
Team and Workforce Diversity:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity
E X H I B I T 9-5

Reinvigorating Mature TeamsReinvigorating Mature Teams
 Problems of Mature Teams
– Becoming stagnant and complacent as cohesiveness
increases.
– Developing groupthink.
– Confronting more difficult issues.
 Reinvigorating Teams
1. Prepare members to deal with problems of maturity.
2. Offer refresher training.
3. Offer advanced training.
4. Encourage teams to treat their development as a
constant learning experience.

1. Describe the communication process.
2. Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of
oral versus written communication.
3. Compare the effectiveness of the chain,
wheel, and all-channel networks.
4. Identify the factors affecting the use of the
grapevine.
5. Discuss how computer-aided technology is
changing organizational communication.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

6. Explain the importance of channel richness to
improving communication effectiveness.
7. Identify common barriers to effective
communication.
8. List behaviors related to effective active
listening.
9. Contrast the meaning of talk for men versus
women.
10. Describe the potential problems in cross-
cultural communication.

Functions of CommunicationFunctions of Communication
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make
decisions.
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make
decisions.

The Communication Process ModelThe Communication Process Model
E X H I B I T 10-1

Direction of CommunicationDirection of Communication
Upward
Downward
Lateral

Interpersonal CommunicationInterpersonal Communication
 Oral Communication
– Advantages: Speed and feedback.
– Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.
 Written Communication
– Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.
– Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.
 Nonverbal Communication
– Advantages: Supports other communications and
provides observable expression of emotions and
feelings.
– Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or
gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of
message.

Intonations: It’s the Way You Say It!Intonations: It’s the Way You Say It!
E X H I B I T 10-2

Three Common Formal Small-Group NetworksThree Common Formal Small-Group Networks
E X H I B I T 10-3

Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness
Criteria
Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness
Criteria
E X H I B I T 10-4

GrapevineGrapevine
 Grapevine Characteristics
– Not controlled by management.
– Perceived by most employees as being more
believable and reliable than formal communications.
– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who
use it.
– Results from:
• Desire for information about important situations
• Ambiguous conditions
• Conditions that cause anxiety

Suggestions for Reducing the Negative
Consequences of Rumors
Suggestions for Reducing the Negative
Consequences of Rumors
E X H I B I T 10-5

Computer-Aided CommunicationComputer-Aided Communication
 E-mail
– Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost
for distribution.
– Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional
content, cold and impersonal.
 Intranet
– A private organization-wide information network.
 Extranet
– An information network connecting employees with
external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.
 Videoconferencing
– An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits
face-to-face virtual meetings via video links.

Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-MailEmoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail
E X H I B I T 10-6

Choice of Communication ChannelChoice of Communication Channel
Characteristics of Rich Channels
1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.
2. Facilitate rapid feedback.
3. Are very personal in context.
Characteristics of Rich Channels
1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.
2. Facilitate rapid feedback.
3. Are very personal in context.

Information Richness of Communication
Channels
Information Richness of Communication
Channels
E X H I B I T 10-7
Low channel richness High channel richness
Routine Nonroutine

Barriers to Effective CommunicationBarriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)
emotionsemotions
How a receiver feels at theHow a receiver feels at the
time a message is receivedtime a message is received
will influence how thewill influence how the
message is interpreted.message is interpreted.
languagelanguage
Words have differentWords have different
meanings to differentmeanings to different
people.people.

Communication Barriers Between Men and
Women
Communication Barriers Between Men and
Women
Men talk to:
– Emphasize status,
power, and
independence.
– Complain that women
talk on and on.
– Offer solutions.
– To boast about their
accomplishments.
Women talk to:
– Establish connection
and intimacy.
– Criticize men for not
listening.
– Speak of problems to
promote closeness.
– Express regret and
restore balance to a
conversation.

Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Communication
 Cultural Barriers
– Barriers caused by semantics
– Barriers caused by word connotations
– Barriers caused by tone differences
– Barriers caused by differences among perceptions

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in
Different Countries
Different Countries
E X H I B I T 10-10a

Different Countries (cont’d)
Different Countries (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 10-10b

Communication Barriers and Cultural ContextCommunication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-
vs.
Low-
Context
Cultures
High-
vs.
Low-
Context
Cultures
E X H I B I T 10-11

A Cultural GuideA Cultural Guide
Cultural Context Communication Rules:
1. Assume differences until similarity is proven.
2. Emphasize description rather than
interpretation or evaluation.
3. Practice empathy.
4. Treat your interpretations as a working
hypothesis.
Cultural Context Communication Rules:
1. Assume differences until similarity is proven.
2. Emphasize description rather than
interpretation or evaluation.
3. Practice empathy.
4. Treat your interpretations as a working
hypothesis.

1. Contrast leadership and management.
2. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories.
3. Identify the limitations of behavioral theories.
4. Describe Fiedler’s contingency model.
5. Explain Hersey and Blanchard’s situational
theory.
6. Summarize leader-member exchange theory.
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

7. Describe the path-goal theory.
8. Identify the situational variables in the leader-
participation model.

What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership?
management
Use of authority inherent in
designated formal rank to
obtain compliance from
organizational members

Trait TheoriesTrait Theories
Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::
• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy
• The desire to leadThe desire to lead
• Honesty andHonesty and
integrityintegrity
• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence
• IntelligenceIntelligence
• Job-relevantJob-relevant
knowledgeknowledge
Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::
• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy
• The desire to leadThe desire to lead
• Honesty andHonesty and
integrityintegrity
• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence
• IntelligenceIntelligence
• Job-relevantJob-relevant
knowledgeknowledge

Trait TheoriesTrait Theories
LimitationsLimitations::
• No universal traits that predict leadershipNo universal traits that predict leadership
in all situations.in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak”Traits predict behavior better in “weak”
than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effectUnclear evidence of the cause and effect
of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance ofBetter predictor of the appearance of
leadership than distinguishing effectiveleadership than distinguishing effective
and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.
LimitationsLimitations::
• No universal traits that predict leadershipNo universal traits that predict leadership
in all situations.in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak”Traits predict behavior better in “weak”
than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effectUnclear evidence of the cause and effect
of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance ofBetter predictor of the appearance of
leadership than distinguishing effectiveleadership than distinguishing effective
and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories
• Trait theory:Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.
• Trait theory:Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies

University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies

The
Managerial
Grid
The
Managerial
Grid
E X H I B I T 11-1

Scandinavian StudiesScandinavian Studies

Contingency Theories: Fiedler’s ModelContingency Theories: Fiedler’s Model

Fiedler’s Model: Defining the SituationFiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation

E X H I B I T 11-2
Findings from Fiedler ModelFindings from Fiedler Model

Cognitive Resource TheoryCognitive Resource Theory
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals
perform better in leadership
roles under high stress than
do more intelligent
individuals.
• Less experienced people
roles under low stress than
do more experienced
people.
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals
roles under high stress than
do more intelligent
individuals.
• Less experienced people
roles under low stress than
do more experienced
people.

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory
Follower readiness: ability and
willingness
Follower readiness: ability and
willingness
Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Leader–Member Exchange TheoryLeader–Member Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory
E X H I B I T 11-3

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory
E X H I B I T 11-4

Leader-Participation ModelLeader-Participation Model

Contingency Variables in the Revised
Leader-Participation Model
Contingency Variables in the Revised
Leader-Participation Model
E X H I B I T 11-5

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