Film critique and analysis of Smoke Signals (1998)

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Smoke Signals: Counternarratives of Indigenous Identity
Chris Eyre’s Smoke Signals (1998)1
, created by and for indigenous peoples, counters
mainstream American ideas on indigenous identity through its adoption and refutation of
indigenous stereotypes. The film, set in contemporary times, opposes Hollywood and the
American media’s insistence on depicting primarily historical images of indigenous peoples (think
Last of the Mohicans [1992]2
, Dances with Wolves [1990]3
, or Pocahontas [1995]4
), images that
contribute to the national misconception that indigenous peoples do not exist today. In further
contrast with typical films on indigenous peoples, the film does not use a white narrator as a
mediator for the non-indigenous audience. The film thus greatly contributes to positive
representations for indigenous peoples. The film also follows in the indigenous oral tradition with
its use of the hero twins, figures who are present in many indigenous emergence narratives (think
of the Seneca's Othagwenda and Djuskaha5
). In Smoke Signals, the main characters Victor Joseph
and Thomas Builds-the-Fire are not related by blood, but by circumstance: Victor’s father saves
Thomas, then an infant, from a fire that kills Thomas’s parents. Other figures from indigenous oral
traditions, such as the trickster, sacred clowns, and the mother goddess contribute to the film’s
commitment to abandoning American narratological norms. Smoke Signals counters mainstream
American ideas on indigenous identity through its utilization of indigenous narratological
conventions and adoption and refutation of indigenous stereotypes.
As the on-screen text of the establishing shot reveals, Smoke Signals begins in 1976, on the
Coeur d’Alene Indian Reservation in Idaho. After revealing the household fire that connects the
1
Smoke Signals, directed by Chris Eyre (1998; Los Angeles, CA: Miramax, 1999), DVD.
2
Last of the Mohicans, directed by Michael Mann (1992; Los Angeles, CA: Twentieth Century Fox Film
Corporation, 1999), DVD.
3
Dances with Wolves, directed by Kevin Costner (1990; Los Angeles, CA: Orion Pictures, 1991), DVD.
4
Pocahontas, directed by Mike Gabriel and Eric Goldberg (1995; Burbank, CA: Buena Vista Pictures, 1996), DVD.
5
Judy Kertesz, “Emergence Narratives” (handout, Raleigh, NC, August 22, 2019).

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two main characters, the film fast forwards to the year 1998, but alternates at times to show the
childhoods of Victor and Thomas or other past events.
Smoke Signals assumes the viewer has prior knowledge, at a basic level, of the historical
relations and interactions between indigenous peoples and the American government. The film
also assumes the viewer has a familiarity with the with settlement of some indigenous peoples on
reservations, as well as the existence of tribal schools. True to the statement that the film is by and
for indigenous peoples, the film does not make efforts to apprise non-indigenous audiences of the
state of indigenous affairs; this is rightfully so, as the film contains no mediating white narrator
for non-indigenous viewers like many films before it.
Smoke Signals employs several storytelling conventions common to indigenous oral
traditions; it may be suggested that Eyre and Sherman Alexie (whose short story the film is adapted
from) break from these Anglo-American narrative practices in order to offer a view of reservation
life from an indigenous perspective, as well as to appeal to an indigenous audience who would
likely have some degree of familiarity with indigenous folk story elements. During the initial
expository phase of the film, viewers listen as Thomas Builds-the-Fire relates the fateful event of
July 4, 1976. His narration, heard throughout the film, serves to relate important contextual
knowledge to the viewers while also reinforcing Thomas’ position as tradent of Coeur D'Alene
history. As we learn from Thomas, a house fire occurs and Arnold Joseph, father of Victor,
emerges from the flames to deliver baby Thomas into the arms of his grandmother. The story is
reminiscent of the Seneca emergence narrative6
, and I argue that Thomas represents the favored
prophet twin, Djuskaha, who is delivered into the arms of his grandmother. Thomas’ grandmother,
in this case, represents the Sky Woman, the mother goddess, from the same narrative. The prophet
6
Judy Kertesz, “Emergence Narratives” (handout, Raleigh, NC, August 22, 2019).

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twin may also be seen throughout history in the historical figures Tenskwatawa7
, Neolin8
,
Sganyodaiyo9
, and Lozen10
. On the other hand, Victor is representative of the warrior twin
Othagwenda, or of the historical figures of Tecumseh11
, Pontiac12
, Gaiänt'wakê13
, and Bidu-ya14
.
This is evident from the scene in which Victor plays basketball and, according to his father,
emerges victorious in an (basketball) engagement with white missionaries. Velma and Lucy,
friends of Victor and Thomas, drive backwards throughout the film and seem to play the role of
sacred clowns, who hilariously shed light on serious issues such as the existence of rez cars and
alcoholism15
. Even Arnold can be considered as somewhat of a trickster figure, from his early
monologue on vanishing and subsequent vanishing act16
. Notably, the film alternates between
scenes in the present and flashbacks, which conveys the indigenous conception of circular time17
.
Finally, the use of two heroes who rely upon each other and return home from their quest differs
from the Anglo-American archetype of the rugged, individualistic hero who can be seen
disappearing into the distance following his quest (think of Shane [1953]18
)19
. Eyre and Alexie
employ these elements of the indigenous oral tradition to counter mainstream American narratives.
Smoke Signals presents various stereotypes of indigenous peoples in order to later counter
them; specifically, these stereotypes attribute such characteristics as mysticism, prevalent
alcoholism (and abuse), and warrior stoicism to indigenous peoples. Following the news of his
7
Judy Kertesz, “Revitalization and Resistance” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, November 5, 2019).
8
Judy Kertesz, “Surveying War” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, October 15, 2019).
9
Judy Kertesz, “Empire of Liberty” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, October 22, 2019).
10
Judy Kertesz, “American Empire (Part II)” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, November 26, 2019).
11
Judy Kertesz, “Revitalization and Resistance” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, November 5, 2019).
12
Judy Kertesz, “Surveying War” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, October 15, 2019).
13
Judy Kertesz, “Empire of Liberty” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, October 22, 2019).
14
Judy Kertesz, “American Empire (Part II)” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, November 26, 2019).
15
Judy Kertesz, personal communications with author, November 19, 2019.
16
Judy Kertesz, personal communications with author, November 19, 2019.
17
Judy Kertesz, “Revitalization and Resistance” (presentation, Raleigh, NC, November 5, 2019).
18
Shane, directed by George Stevens (1953: Los Angeles, CA: Paramount Pictures, 2013).
19
Judy Kertesz, personal communications with author, November 19, 2019.

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father’s death, Victor visits a store and encounters Thomas, who informs him that he is aware of
Arnold’s death. Victor questions how Thomas found out, to which Thomas responds, “I heard it
on the wind. I heard it from the birds. I felt it in the sunlight. And your mom was just in here
crying.” The film at first presents the stereotype of indigenous mysticism (“I heard it on the wind.
I heard it from the birds. I felt in the sunlight.”) that assumes a deep spiritual connection with
nature on the part of indigenous peoples. The stereotype is then countered with the line, “And you
mom was just in here crying.” Thomas’ knowledge of the death is based not on magic, but reality,
observation and inference. Representations of indigenous mysticism prevail in the media; in the
popular Disney film Pocahontas20
, the titular character often confers with Grandmother Willow,
a talking willow tree, and sings “Colors of the Wind,” which reinforces ideas about indigenous
people’s connection with nature. The choice to present and then rebut the stereotype of indigenous
mysticism serves to dispel a popularly held false notion that serves to mysticize and dehumanize
indigenous peoples.
Smoke Signals depicts alcoholism and abuse and their subsequent effect on those
surrounded by it. The film shows Arnold Joseph and his wife’s early struggles with alcoholism;
but the film recognizes that their issues are by no means a norm within their community, as
stereotypes about indigenous alcoholism assume. The film also treats the characters’ struggles as
a serious issue with repercussions, instead of as something to be played for laughs. Additionally,
of the several characters in the film, many discuss their choice to abstain from alcohol
consumption. In one scene, we see Velma and Lucy talking while riding in their car. Velma
requests that Lucy give her a beer, but Lucy reminds Velma of their decision not to drink anymore.
In a later scene, Thomas and Victor are being questioned by a police officer in regard to the car
20
Pocahontas, directed by Mike Gabriel and Eric Goldberg (1995; Burbank, CA: Buena Vista Pictures, 1996),
DVD.

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accident they were involved in. The officer says that one of the other drivers accused Victor of
being drunk, to which he vehemently denies having ever consumed alcohol in his life. One can
infer that his choice is based on the damaging effects his parent’s alcoholism had on his life. The
officer responds, “Well, just what kind of injun are you, exactly?” The officer’s response is clearly
based upon the stereotype of rampant indigenous alcoholism. Historically, the “drunken Indian”
stereotype may be seen in the autobiography of Benjamin Franklin21
, where Franklin characterizes
indigenous peoples as prone to drunkenness and rowdiness. The film works to dispel the stereotype
by showing that alcoholism affects a limited proportion of the indigenous population and that the
characters who face it are multifaceted and more than just their alcoholism.
Smoke Signals also reproduces the stereotype of warrior stoicism. In one key scene, Victor
and Thomas are having a discussion while traveling on a bus to Phoenix, Arizona. Victor
comments that Thomas speaks like a medicine man and questions how many times Thomas has
seen the film Dances with Wolves. Victor questions if Thomas knows what it means to be a “real
Indian,” and states that he will have to teach Thomas. He goes on to say, “First of all, quit grinning
like an idiot. Indians ain’t supposed to smile like that. Get stoic. […] No. Like this. You gotta look
mean, or people won’t respect you. White people will run all over you if you don’t look mean.
You gotta look like a warrior. You gotta look like you just came back from killing a buffalo.”
Ironically, Victor critiques Thomas for acting in a way that he believes resembles stereotypical
representations from the media (Dances with Wolves) but then goes on to say that indigenous
people should don a stereotype in confrontations with a racist society. Afterwards, Thomas returns
to the bus without his usual suit and braided hair. Thomas attempts a stern face, but breaks into his
21
Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (London: George Bell & Sons, 1884), 114.

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normal smile and puts on his glasses. The attempts to cover his true identity are rejected, and the
film makes it clear that the stoic warrior is a role instead of an identity.
Ultimately, Smoke Signals counters mainstream American ideas on indigenous identity
through its adoption and refutation of stereotypes of indigenous mysticism, rampant alcoholism,
and warrior stoicism. The film’s use of narratological conventions common to indigenous oral
traditions also reinforces the film’s divergence from the mainstream American perspective. The
film offers far more positive representations of indigenous peoples than often seen in film and
television both before and after its release.