1. Submitted by Ifra kanwal
Topic personality
Subject Behavioral psychology
Submitted to Madam Zobia Shahid
Personality psychology
2. Introduction:
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology thatstudies personality and its
differences between people. Focus areas include:
• The formation of a coherent image of a person and their major psychological
processes.
• Investigateindividualpsychologicaldifferences.
• Investigation of personality and similarity of attitudes among people.
"Personality" is a collection of powerfuland orderly personaltraits that havea
special impact on their environment, mind, emotions, motivation, and behavior in
a variety of situations. The word "personality" is derived fromthe Latin persona,
meaning mask.
Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments,
and behaviors that are expressed over time that have a profound effect on a
person's expectations, thoughts, values, and behavior. Personality also predicts
one’s reaction to other people, problems and pressures. Gordon Allport(1937)
described two major ways of studying personality: nomothetic and idiographic.
Nomothetic psychology seeks generalrules that can be applied to many different
people, such as the goal of self-improvementor the practice of repetition.
Idiographic psychology is theattempt to understand the differentaspects of a
person. The study of humanity has a broad history and biological diversity with a
wide range of doctrinal cultures. Major concepts include the concept of rejection
(element), psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviuorist, evolutionary and
the concept of social learning. However, many researchers and psychologists do
not explicitly define it in a particular way and instead adopt an eclectic approach.
Research in this area is vigorously conducted, such as sizemodels, based on
multivariate statistics, such as material analysis, or emphasizing theoretical
development, such as personality testing. In education and mental training, the
study of personality and mental development is often reviewed as a necessary
psychologicaldiscipline. There is also a great deal of emphasis on the field of
applied psychology or clinical psychology.
Type theories:
3. Personality refers to the psychologicalseparation of differenttypes of people.
Personalities are distinguished by personality traits, which come in varying
degrees. There are many types of personalities, but each theory contains several
theories and sometimes many. The "personalopinion" developed by any given
psychologistwill contain a number of related or subconscious ideas that often
increase as the psychologistexamines the theory.
For example, according to the type of theory, there are two types of people,
presentations and extroverts. According totrait theories,
Introversion and extroversion arepartof a larger sizewith more people in
between. The concept of psychology is based on the work of Carl Jung's theories,
especially in his 1921 book PsychologischeTypen (PsychologicalTypes) by William
Marston.
The ancient Greek philosophers Hippocrates (400BC) and Galen (140 AD) were
among the firstto carefully classify the personalities of the people they called
"jokes." Hippocrates believed that our personality was made up of 4 subtle
influences on water. The type of personality Theory of Carl Jung was based on in
his theory of relativity. He believed that we were one of two kinds of personality:
• Introvert (Subjective):A shy, self-centered person who is self-centered
• Extrovert (Purpose): A brave, outgoing person.
Another importantconcept in Jung's view is the four functions of humanity. The
firstfunction is "feelings", in which a person perceives the value of cognitive
functions. The second is "thinking" that enables one to read the meaning of an
object .This third is a "feeling" that allows a person to know that something exists.
The latter is an "intuition" that gives him information about something without
having a clear understanding of wherethat information comes from.
Psychoanalytic Theories:
Psychoanalytic theories describea person's behavior in terms of principles.
Sigmund Freud was the founder of this schoolof thought. Freud used the physics
of his day (thermodynamics) to make the word psychodynamics.In thesenseof
converting heat to mechanical energy, you havesuggested psychic energy that
can be converted into behavior. Freud's view puts the value in the middle of a
heated, intellectual conflict. Freud divides human personality into three distinct
categories: id, ego, and super-ego.
The id works according to the principle of pleasure, seeking the immediate
4. fulfillment of its needs regardless of the external environment; ego must emerge
in order to truly meet the desires and needs of the id by going to the outside
world, by adhering to the principle of reality. Finally, superego (conscience)
imposes moral judgmentand social norms on the ego, thus forcing that id
requirements can be met not only physically but also morally. Superego is the
ultimate human activity that can be developed, and is the concept of parental /
social goals established during childhood. According to Freud, personality is based
on a strong interaction of these three elements.
Heinz Kohutthought similarly to Freud's idea of transmission. Heused narcissism
as an example of how people develop their self-esteem. Narcissismis an
exaggerated concept of one person believed to exist to protect self-esteem and
worthlessness. Kohuthas madea significant contribution to the field by
expanding Freud's vision of violence and introducing what he calls the 'self-
reflection' of the mirror and doing things right. In other words, Children need to
think and 'sink in' and identify the appropriateskills of great people like their
parents or older siblings. They also need their dignity to be shown by these
people. This experience allows them to learn the artand other skills needed to
develop a healthy senseof self-worth. Another important figurein the world of
human theory is Karen Horney. Thank you for the development of "personal" and
"personal". Hebelieves that all people have two opinions of their own. "Person"
means the way people act in terms of personality, values, and morals; but
"qualified person" is the creation of self-employed people to comply with social
and personalnorms.
Behavioral Perspectives:
Behaviorists define humanity in terms of external influences it has on morality.
The methods used to analyzethe aspectof human behavior are known as moral
beliefs or learning theories. These methods werea radical changefromFreudian
philosophy. Oneof the great features of this position of human psychology is the
strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation. This schoolof
thought was founded by B. F. Skinner who set up a model that emphasized
human interaction or "body" with his nature. Skinner believes that children do
bad things because the character receives attention that acts as a reinforcement.
For example: the baby cries becausethe baby's crying in the past has led to
attention. This is the answer, and the consequences. The answer is a child's cry,
5. and the attention received by this effect is reassuring. According to this view,
human behavior is shaped by processes such as the working environment. Skinner
has set out a "three-dimensionalstress model" that has helped to promote
behavioralanalysis based on the "Stimulus - Response- ConsequenceModel" in
which the critical question states: the one that produces the same 'effect'?
"Richard Herrnstein expanded on this idea by calculating attitudes and traits. The
condition develops as the ability to respond (the tendency to respond) to the
surfaceof the group of stimuli stabilizes. Instead of describing characteristic
features in non-morallanguage, the ability to respond to a given situation creates
a natural part of it. Herrstein also discovered the potential for great genetic or
biological variations, as is true of most modern cultures. Ivan Pavlov is another
notable influence. He is bestknown for his efforts to investigate the situation
involving dogs, which led to his finding a moralfoundation.
Social cognitive theories:In the concept of understanding, morality is
defined as being guided by thoughts (e.g. expectations) about the world,
especially those relating to other people. Cognitive theories are human
perceptions that emphasizecognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.
Albert Bandura, a sociologist, highlighted the power of memory and emotion to
work in harmony with environmental influences. Bandura is best known for the
"Bobo doll test". During the test, Bandura video tape a college studentkicked and
harassed Bobo dolls. He then showed the video to a kindergarten class that was
preparing to go out to play. As they entered the playroom, they saw Bobo dolls
and other hammers. People who watched the children play saw a group of
children knocking on the door. He called the study and his findings a study to
watch, or model. The first examples of cognitive stylemethods are calculated by
Baron (1982). Theseinclude Witkin's (1965) field-based work, Gardner's (1953)
human discovery had fixed preferences for the number of categories they used to
classify complexity, and Block and Petersen (1955) worked on self-confidencein
the discriminatory line judgments. Baron recounts the early development of
personalcognitive approaches and ego psychology. Themostimportant thing in
this field has been: An idea of a stylethat speaks to the different ways in which
people describeevents in their lives. This approach builds on the control area, but
expands on the fact that we also need to look at whether people point out stable
causes or changing causes, and global causes or specific causes.
6. Walter Mischel (1999) also defended human understanding. His work focuses on
"Cognitive Affective Units", and focuses on such things as coding, touch, goal
setting, and self-regulatory beliefs. The term “Units of Understanding Concerns”
indicates how his way of thinking affects and understands. Cognitive-Experience
Self-Theory (CEST) is another concept of cognitive personality. Developed by
Seymour Epstein, CEST states that people work with two independent data
processing systems:
An experience programand a logical system. The experience programis fastand
emotionally driven. The rational systemis slow and rational. The two systems
work together to determine our goals, our thoughts, and our behavior. Personal
constructpsychology (PCP) is a personaltheory developed by American
psychologistGeorgeKelly in the 1950's. Kelly’s view of humanity is that people
are like inexperienced scientists who see the world through a certain lens, based
on their planned construction plans, which they use to anticipate events. But
because humans areinexperienced scientists, they sometimes useconstruction
systemsa world twisted by an idiosyncratic experience that does not apply to
their current socialcontext. A construction programthat often fails to predict and
/ or predict events, and which cannotbe properly revised to understand and
predict a changing socialworld, is considered the basis of psychopathology (or
mental illness.) Interviews thathelped her patients reveal their “properties” with
minimal intervention or medical interpretation. The retrieval grid was also used
for a variety of purposes in organizations, including decision-making and
interpreting other people's opinions.
Humanistic theories:Humanistic is a study of everyoneand their
differences.
History of Humanistic Psychology:
• Maslow (1943) developed the concept of sequence of human intentions.
Carl Rogers (1946) publishes key aspects of customer-focused therapy (also called
person therapy)
• In 1957 and 1958 atthe invitation of AbrahamMaslow and Clark Moustakas two
meetings were held in Detroit between psychologists interested in establishing a
professional, dedicated and more humane organization.
• In 1962, with the supportof Brandeis University, the organization was officially
established as the Association for Humanistic Psychology.
7. • The firstissueof Humanistic Psychology appeared in the spring of 1961.
• Humanistic Psychology is based on the philosophies of the existence of objects
and personalities.
Human Theory of personality:
Human theory emphasizes the fundamental beauty of humanity and the need to
fulfill its full potential.
Moral and psychologicalthinking is forbidden.
Two psychologists known for their personalideas are
Carl Rogers
AbrahamMaslow
Basic Assumption Humanistic Psychology
• People have free will not all prescribed behavior.
• All people are different and have a natural desire to achieve their highest
potential.
• Proper understanding of human behavior can only be achieved through the
study of humans and not animals.
Psychology should study thecase of an individual rather than the functioning of
groups.
Basic Principles behind Humanistic Psychology
1. The currentperformanceof someoneis their most important factor.
2. To be mentally healthy people need to be responsiblefor their actions.
3. The ultimate purposeof life is to achieve human growth and understanding.
Theories of Biopsychology:
Biology plays a very important role in the development of personality. The study
of biological biology in human psychology focuses on therole of genes and how
they shapethe personality of each individual. Oneof the firstideas about possible
human foundations camefrom Phineas Gage. In the catastropheof 1848, a large
iron rod was passed over Gage's head, and his personality evidently changed as a
result, though the descriptions of these psychologicalchanges were often
exaggerated. Often, patients with brain damage have difficulty finding and
studying. In the 1990s, researchers began using electroencephalography (EEG),
positron emission tomography (PET), and newly used magnetic resonance
magnetic resonanceimaging (fMRI), now the mostwidely used imaging technique
8. to help detect personality traits.
Since then the Human Genome Projectallowed a deeper understanding of
genetics, there has been an ongoing debate involving fairness, personality traits
and environmental impact on humanity. Human genetics are known to play a role
in personality development.
Previously, human genetic studies focused on specific genes that were associated
with specific personality traits. The modern view of genetic relationships focuses
on the functioning and production of human genes and is partof the so-called
behavioralgenes. Genetics offer many options for the expression of various cells;
however, naturedetermines which of these works. Many studies haveidentified
these relationships in a variety of ways in which our bodies can grow, butthe link
between genetics and the formation of our mind and personality is also important
in this blood relationship.
The interdependence of DNA with nature is essential to human development
because this relationship determines which partof the DNA code is actually made
into proteins that will be part of the individual. Itis noted that in time various
decisions are made available through the genome, in the end, nature is the final
determinant of the find. Minor changes in the DNA of each individual lead to the
formation of the individual and the differences in appearance, abilities, brain
function, and all the things that culminate in the development of a cohesive
personality.
Cattell and Eysenck have suggested that genes havea profound effecton
personality. Much of the evidence gathered to link genetics with natureand
personality has come from twin studies. This "twin method" compares the
similarity in personality traits using identical twins. One of the firsttwin studies
we measured 800 twin twins, studied many personality traits, and determined
that identical twins werevery similar in their normalabilities. Personality
similarities have been found to have little to do with artificial intelligence, goals,
and interests. Twin studies are also important in building a five-person model:
neuroticism, extraversion, openness, harmony, and conscience. Neuroticismand
extraversion are two of the mostwidely studied aspects. A person who falls into
the category of extravertcan show such things as haste, fun, and efficiency. A
person who falls into the category of neuroticismmay havea spiritof anxiety,
worry or anger. The same twins, however, havea higher affinity for personality
traits than family twins. Onestudy measuring the genetic influence of twins in five
9. different countries found that same-sexrelationships existed, while they were
fraternal. Itis suggested that genetics and naturesharein determining his
personality.
Personality tests
Personaltesting is very helpful
Tells us about a person's normallife through stress and health,
Tells us how a person copes with certain stressfulor demanding situations e.g.,
depressed and suicidal.
Objective
The Minnesota Multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI-1)
Types of objective questions include multiple facts true / false Objective
Projective
Rorschach (Ink BlotTest) test.
Thematic Apperception test.
IncompleteRotter Test for Sentence Blank Test (RISB)
Subjective:
interview
Objective
AssumePersonality is accessible through awareness and can be measured by self-
reportquestions.
MinnesotaMultiphasic Personality Inventory: This study was developed in 1940
and published in 1943. Based on an artistic process i.e. data collection and testing.
The person is presented with statements and the answers haveoptions such as
true, false and can say. Some of the statements fromthe MMPI areas follows:
I cry easily ii.
I am very happy most of the time.
The MMPI has 550 items. MMPI has ten treatment scales, which means it
diagnoses people with ten clinical diseases. Ithas four eligibility scales. Asset
collection was revived severalyears ago, and is now known as MMPI-2. MMPI-2is
based on 567 statements covering topics ranging fromphysicaland psychological
grievances to employee preferences and social attitudes. Measuring MMPI-2 is
objective.
10. Projective:
Itis thought that a person will extract the characteristics of their personality from
their responses.
• The Rorschach Test (Ink Blot Test) RorschachTechnique: Developed by Swiss
psychologistHermann Rorschach;contains 10 standard inkblots (“inkblot” test).
The Rorschachtest involves showing a person a series of note cards with intricate
ink letters on them. The person being tested is asked to provide an interpretation
of the card spots according to all possibleink-based details depending on their
definition. The expert then analyzes their answers. Therules for getting a test are
tested in a manual that includes various features such as content, actual
response, location of "visualimages" and severalother factors. Using these
specific scoring techniques, the therapist will then try to associatethe test
answers with the person's personality traits and his or her unique traits. The idea
is that ignorant needs will come froma person’s response, e.g. an angry person
can see images of destruction. Example:
Thematic ApperceptionTest(TAT):
THERMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
Developed by Henry Murray, has 31 cards, 30 with pictures on them and one
blank card. A picture card is shown on the title and the therapistasks the narrator
to tell a story aboutthe picture. The test instructions begin ‘this is a test of
thought, one kind of intelligence. Let your thoughts have their way as they are in
11. the storyof fairy tales and say what the people on the picture card are doing. ’The
story should havea title, a beginning, a middle part and an end. The basic
assumption that most subjects willexpress their ignorantmental processes, their
needs, their desires for the characters in their stories about images.
Examples of pictures
Rotter’s Incomplete SentenceBlank Test (RISB)
Rotter IncompleteSentence Blank is a psychologicaltest presented by Julian
Rotter and Janet E. Rafferty in 1950.
This test consists of a series of unfinished sentences that people are asked to
complete, often considered a good spring board to explore and identify areas of
human life that are problematic or conflicting. Sentences are common,
I wish _____.
The father is ______.
Girls are_____.
Home is a place ________.
This test examines a person's social, family and general state of health. There are
40 tests that are incomplete. These tests havemoderate and moderate
measurement procedures.
Subjective:
interview:
A face-to-facemeeting designed to obtain information about a person's
personality, currentstate of mental functioning, or personalhistory
• RandomConversation: Conversation is informal, and topics are discussed as
