Hazel Hall's paper, co-authored with Gunilla Widen-Wulff, Lorraine Paterson and Brian Davison, presented at Information: Interactions and Impact (i3), Aberdeen 22-25 June 2009. It develops the earlier work discussed in the presentation available at http://www.slideshare.net/HazelHall/motivating-learner-engagement-in-online-environments-the-relevance-of-social-exchange-theory and the paper available at http://drhazelhall.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/2008_hall_widen_wulff_use_oulu1.pdf, and was later developed into a full journal article accessible from http://hazelhall.org/?attachment_id=119.

1. Shared relationships, spaces and online information behaviours
A social exchange and capital perspective
Presented by Dr Hazel Hall
Reader in Social Informatics
Centre for Social Informatics
Edinburgh Napier University
Scotland, UK
h.hall@napier.ac.uk
@hazelh (Twitter)

2. Research background
Project team
 Dr Hazel Hall, Edinburgh Napier University, Scotland
 Professor Gunilla Widén-Wulff, Åbo Akademi
University, Finland
 Lorraine Paterson, User Vision, Edinburgh, Scotland
 Brian Davison, Edinburgh Napier University,
Scotland
External funding
 Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland

3. Research question
To what extent are online
To what extent are online
information interactions
information interactions
socially motivated?
socially motivated?

4. Research questions
To what extent are online
To what extent are online How strong aarole do
How strong role do
hard/explicit rewards serve as
hard/explicit rewards serve as
information interactions
information interactions incentives for online information
incentives for online information
sharing?
socially motivated?
socially motivated?
sharing?
To what extent does aadesire to
To what extent does desire to
reciprocate prompt individuals
reciprocate prompt individuals
to share information in online
to share information in online
How do existing social
How do existing social environments?
environments?
linkages predict interactions in
linkages predict interactions in
an online information sharing
an online information sharing
environment?
environment? May an online environment
May an online environment
develop an ecology that
develop an ecology that
actively encourages online
actively encourages online
information sharing?
information sharing?

5. Research questions
To what extent are online
To what extent are online How strong aarole do
How strong role do
hard/explicit rewards serve as
hard/explicit rewards serve as
information interactions
information interactions incentives for online information
incentives for online information
sharing?
sociallyWidén-Wulff, G. (2008). Social exchange, social capital
Hall, H., & motivated?
socially motivated?
sharing?
and information sharing in online environments: lessons from three
case studies. Social exchange, social capital and information sharing
studies
in online environments: lessons from three case studies. Studia does aadesire to
To what extent does desire to
To what extent
reciprocate prompt individuals
Humaniora Ouluensia, 8, 73-86. PDF of manuscript reciprocate prompt individuals
available from:
to share information in online
http://www.dcs.napier.ac.uk/~hazelh/esis/hall_widen_wulff_2008.pdf
to share information in online
How do existing social
How do existing social environments?
environments?
linkages predict interactions in
linkages predict interactions in
an online information sharing
an online information sharing
environment?
environment? May an online environment
May an online environment
develop an ecology that
develop an ecology that
actively encourages online
actively encourages online
information sharing?
information sharing?

6. Possible explanations for online
information sharing behaviours
Focus here is on one of the non-corporate environments
discussed by Hall and Widén-Wulff (2008)
 Edinburgh Napier University
 Data from two cohorts (2007 and 2008)
 Full paper to position the findings with growing literature base that
ties online information sharing with social exchange theory, within
a broader context of social capital

9. Exchange theory
From economics
 Economic resources are
bought and sold
 Deals are subject to contractual
obligations
 Resources are exchanged for
currency
 Purchaser choices are made
from a range of options
 Best value for lowest cost

10. Social exchange theory
“Flavour” of exchange theory
 “Resources” “bought” and
“sold”, but mutual obligations
are ill-defined
 “Deals” not necessarily subject
to contractual obligations
 “Resources” not necessarily
exchanged for currency
 “Resources” exchanged may
be valued more highly than
market cost

11. Social exchange theory
“Flavour” of exchange theory
 “Resources” “bought” and
“sold”, but mutual obligations
are ill-defined Actors share social bonds, and
Actors share social bonds, and
high levels of trust, in long-term
high levels of trust, in long-term
 “Deals” not necessarily subject dependent relationships
dependent relationships
to contractual obligations
 “Resources” not necessarily
exchanged for currency
 “Resources” exchanged may
be valued more highly than
market cost

12. Applications of social exchange theory
Discipline Themes
Anthropology Gift-giving
Sociology Power relationships
Behavioural psychology Processes of learning
Information systems Open source communities
Information science Scholarly communications as based on relationships
built through research communities and invisible
colleges
Processes of scholarship as productive exchange
Citation analysis – social connectivity of researchers
and levels of trust
Acknowledgements as a form of gift-giving

13. Level 3 Information Delivery module
Module content focused on organisational information
delivery challenges
 Information overload
 Islands of automation
 Audience
Placement experience proxy for 3rd year undergraduates
Mixed cohort
 High proportion of international students: 46% non-native English
speakers in 2008
 Full range of Computing programmes represented (e.g. Information
Systems, Internet Computing, Multimedia, Networking, Human
Computer Systems, Software Engineering), plus Customised

14. Evolution of the learning environment
Cohort Site for reflection Research output
2004 Closed learning logs
2005 Blog environment internal to Hall & Davison (2007)
module developed by one of
2006 the module tutors
2007 “Blog” environment internal to Hall & Widén-Wulff (2008);
to be extended in Hall,
Edinburgh Napier supported Widén-Wulff, Paterson &
2008 by WebCT Portfolio function Davison (2009)
Move into the public space to widen opportunities for collective
reflective learning through speaking out (blogging), listening
(reading) and discussing (commenting).

15. 70% course assessed mark allocated to
blogs and comments
Main entries should
 Be relevant to the week’s module content
 Make links between theory and practice
 Demonstrate understanding or highlight areas of difficulty
 Justify points made, e.g. through reasoned argument, by referring
to reading material, personal experience, etc.
Comments should
 Extend the line of argument of the original blog postings
 Offer alternative views

19. Comments on blog entries
Response to blog entry
Response to blog entry
on course work mark
on course work mark
Reflection on blogger’s
Reflection on blogger’s
observation about the
observation about the
week’s lab activity
week’s lab activity
Discussion of
Discussion of
football score
football score

20. Data
Source of data Data
WebCT: main blog Reflections on information sharing in this
entries environment
Stated motivations for participation
WebCT: comments Comment in exchanges as relevant
on main blog entries Patterns of interaction (e.g. reciprocation)
Students: survey of Student declarations of relationships with
student ties others in the class: friend, acquaintance,
stranger (problems of designation)
University records: Details of student degree programme, tutorial
student “proximity” group for the module, team membership for
data group course work for the module (only official
“proximity” data)
(Interviews Limited, 2007 cohort only)

22. Possible influences on online information
exchanges

23. Possible influences on online information
exchanges
Which dominate(s)?
Which dominate(s)?
Could social exchange
Could social exchange
theory explain information
theory explain information
sharing practice in this
sharing practice in this
online environment?
online environment?

24. Relationships and reciprocation in
“agreed” pairs
Key F(62) A(29) S(63)

25. Relationships and reciprocation in
“agreed” pairs
Little reciprocation overall.
Little reciprocation overall.
Most reciprocation between “friend” pairs.
Most reciprocation between “friend” pairs.
Least reciprocation between “stranger” pairs.
Least reciprocation between “stranger” pairs.
Key F(62) A(29) S(63)

26. Comparison of “friend” and “stranger” pairs
The best hope for
The best hope for
“stranger” pairs in this
“stranger” pairs in this
environment is for aalittle
environment is for little
reciprocation.
reciprocation.
Key None Little Some Much

27. Strong evidence: influence of existing
relationships on commenting practice
...it is so much easier to
...it is so much easier to
The only comments I Ihave
The only comments have comment on my friends’
comment on my friends’
received are from people
received are from people blogs since I Iunderstand
blogs since understand
that I Iknow and I Ithink ititis
that know and think is their thinking better.
their thinking better.
the same for other students.
the same for other students.
I Ido the same as well.
do the same as well.
The majority of the time, my
The majority of the time, my
comments gravitated towards the
comments gravitated towards the
In the first week I Iposted logs of my friends ififonly because I I
logs of my friends only because
In the first week posted
comments only to [my was armed with the knowledge that
was armed with the knowledge that
comments only to [my
friends’] blogs to get they knew me and would not take
they knew me and would not take
friends’] blogs to get
comments from them on anything I Iwrote the wrong way.
anything wrote the wrong way.
comments from them on
my own blog.
my own blog.

28. Strong evidence: influence of proximity on
commenting practice - 2008
Reciprocation Friend pairs 8 pairs demonstrated much
2008 reciprocation
(n=18)
None 17%
 5 pairs: students shared the
Little 33% same degree programme
No pattern
 2 pairs: students did not share
Some 6%
Pattern evident the same degree programme,
but did attend the same lab
Much 44%
String pattern session
Totals 100%
 1 pair: no obvious class contact

29. Strong evidence: influence of proximity on
commenting practice - 2007
Reciprocation Friend pairs 10 pairs demonstrated much
2007 reciprocation
(n=44)
None 48%
 All pair members shared the
Little 27% same degree programme
No pattern
 All pair members attended the
Some 2%
Pattern evident same lab session
Much 23%  In some cases the pairs were
String pattern also located in the same course
Totals 100% work teams

30. Proximity: importance of shared degree
programme
Programme membership of 2007 2008
high reciprocation pair
Pair members on same 70% 62.5%
degree programme
Pair members on different 30% 37.5%
degree programmes
Totals 100% 100%
The majority of pairs that demonstrated high levels of reciprocation
comprised members who shared the same degree programme.

31. Friendship
Proximity Socially motivated
exchange

32. Evidence: influence of “soft” social
reward of fame/status We were all aware that everyone
We were all aware that everyone
was meant to comment on
was meant to comment on
...comments can be very
...comments can be very another two blog entries.
another two blog entries.
useful to motivate the blog’s
useful to motivate the blog’s Therefore you didn’t want to be
Therefore you didn’t want to be
author. Without comments a
author. Without comments a seen as the one who had been
seen as the one who had been
blog’s author can have the
blog’s author can have the left out , ,or less popular...
left out or less popular...
impression that his work is
impression that his work is
useless because ititinterests
useless because interests
nobody.
nobody. Receiving a comment almost
Receiving a comment almost
acted as a seal of approval. It was
acted as a seal of approval. It was
rewarding to know that the blog
rewarding to know that the blog
I Idon’t like not getting
don’t like not getting had actually been read by
had actually been read by
any comments – makes
any comments – makes someone [and] the time and effort
someone [and] the time and effort
me feel like my blog
me feel like my blog to write the blog entries had been
to write the blog entries had been
wasn’t good enough to
wasn’t good enough to worthwhile.
worthwhile.
comment on.
comment on.

33. Social rewards are in the gift of the
blogging/commenting community?
Main blog entries highlighted by tutor in 2008
 Public acknowledgement by tutor in class appeared to have no
pronounced effect on that week’s commenting practice
 Social reward from peers more valuable?
However...
 The work of almost half the students was highlighted
 Mention for a variety of reasons, including humour and playfulness
 Mentions limited to weeks 2 and 3
 Difficult to judge the potential impact of more explicit tutor
intervention

34. Some evidence: influence of “hard”
reward of marks
I Idefinitely don’t think that I I
definitely don’t think that
Three levels of participation for would have created the
would have created the
the grade blogs and posted comments
blogs and posted comments
1. Students conscious of the mark, yet had ititnot been part of the
had not been part of the
still making an effort: information course work specification.
course work specification.
exchange in the online environment
worth more than the mark alone -
majority.
What motivated me... to
What motivated me... to
2. Reluctant participation: participation be perfectly honest, the
be perfectly honest, the
with an eye on the level of the mark fact that I’d fail ififI Idid
fact that I’d fail did
to be achieved - some. not do the commenting.
not do the commenting.
3. Minimal effort: sole purpose of
participation is to gain a mark - few.

35. Evidence: influence of gift economy, and
its development
One thing I Ido feel when
One thing do feel when
someone comments on
someone comments on
[I am] a bit disappointed with the my blog I Ifeel obliged...
my blog feel obliged...
[I am] a bit disappointed with the
turn-out of comments on my blog site to comment on theirs.
to comment on theirs.
turn-out of comments on my blog site
as I Itried to harass people to post
as tried to harass people to post
comments but I Iguess ititdidn’t work...
comments but guess didn’t work...
If I Iposted more on other people’s
If posted more on other people’s
blogs, perhaps I Iwould have gotten
blogs, perhaps would have gotten
more comments.
more comments. ...as I Iwent on, I Istarted
...as went on, started
to comment on people
to comment on people
who had commented on
who had commented on
my posts...
my posts...

36. Evidence: influence of the ecology of the
online environment as developing social
space
I Ihad read a blog or two, started to
had read a blog or two, started to
comment then changed my mind as
comment then changed my mind as I Iam not sure that [the requirement to
am not sure that [the requirement to
I Iwas being rather mean... Now I I
was being rather mean... Now debate] was made clear to us early
debate] was made clear to us early
wish I Ihad continued writing the
wish had continued writing the on... that disagreeing with someone
on... that disagreeing with someone
comments, maybe softening the
comments, maybe softening the and having a healthy argument
and having a healthy argument
blows slightly... It could have helped
blows slightly... It could have helped would be acceptable... [I thought]
would be acceptable... [I thought]
them.
them. that causing friction would be looked
that causing friction would be looked
on in a negative way with grades
on in a negative way with grades
being cut off.
being cut off.

37. Context: social space for learning
Blogosphere as scaffold of After reading this blog I Ithink I Iwill
After reading this blog think will
social infrastructure (Hall get some extra help from someone
get some extra help from someone
& Davison, 2007) with experience [of the library
with experience [of the library
portal] to avoid any problems that
portal] to avoid any problems that
may arise.
may arise.
1. Support for discussion,
feedback, learning
2. Safe environment to
challenge and reflect on [Other students’] blogs about the
[Other students’] blogs about the
“realities” of the subjects topic help me understand the
topic help me understand the
studied concepts. Your blog is a prime
concepts. Your blog is a prime
example of this. Thanks.
example of this. Thanks.
3. Community

38. Influences on online information
exchanges

39. Desire to maintain
Social rewards safe environment
Friendship
Proximity Socially motivated
exchange
Desire to reciprocate Gift economy
(Hard rewards)

40. Social exchange theory as an explanatory
factor of information sharing online:
implications
Proximity
 To what extent can dialogues be engineered across broad
range of contacts where opportunities for physical co-location
are minimal?
 What kind of proxies can be provided for co-location where
this is not possible?
Rewards
 Social rewards as strong motivators of participation in online
information sharing environments
Time
 Participant familiarity with the environment and degree of risk

41. References
Hall, H. (2001). Input-friendliness: motivating knowledge sharing across intranets.
Journal of Information Science 27(3) 139-146 (DOI 10.1177/016555150102700303).
PDF of full text available from http://www.knowledgeboard.com/lib/3259
Hall, H. & Davison, B. (2007). Social software as support in hybrid learning
environments: the value of the blog as a tool for reflective learning and peer support.
Library and Information Science Research, 29(2), 163-187. (DOI
10.1016/j.lisr.2007.04.007.)
Hall, H., & Widén-Wulff, G. (2008). Social exchange, social capital and information
sharing in online environments: lessons from three case studies. Social exchange,
social capital and information sharing in online environments: lessons from three case
studies. Studia Humaniora Ouluensia, 8, 73-86.

42. Shared relationships, spaces and online information behaviours
A social exchange and capital perspective
Presented by Dr Hazel Hall
Reader in Social Informatics
Centre for Social Informatics
Edinburgh Napier University
Scotland, UK
h.hall@napier.ac.uk
@hazelh (Twitter)