4. Discourse analysis and grammar study familiar
terms. Like ; clause, Pronoun, Adverbial and
conjunction and attempt to related them to a les
familiar set of terms : theme, rhyme, reverences
and anaphoric, in order to make link between
grammar and discourse
5. Grammatical Cohesion and textually:
Reference or co-
references
Ellipsis /
substitution
Conjunction
Spoken and written discourse display grammatical connection
between individual clauses and utterances
These grammatical links can be classified under three
broad types :
7. Reference
The relationship
between words and
pronouns that refer to
that word.
Pronouns: He, she, it,
him, they, etc;
Demonstratives: This,
that, these, those, etc
Contents
Title
Exophoric reference
Anaphoric reference
Homophoric reference
Cataphoric reference
8. Exophoric reference
Occurs when a word or phrase refers to something outside the discourse.
Here are some examples of exophoric reference:
They‘re late again, can you believe it?”
“I know! Well, they’d better get here soon or it‘ll get cold.”
They refers to some people outside the discourse known to both speakers.
It also refers to something that both speakers know about (perhaps the dinner).
The use of exophoric reference requires some shared knowledge between two
speakers, or between writer and reader(s).
Cataphoric reference (Forward reference)
For instance:
- Although I phone her every week, my mother still
complains that I don’t keep in touch often enough.
Her refers to my mother
- The book was there on the table. I’d never read
Indonesian textbook and I didn’t intend to do so now.
The book refers to Indonesian.
Anaphoric reference (Backward reference)
Is where a word or phrase refers back to
another word or phrase used earlier in a text
such as he/she, them, it, this can be decoded
without major difficulty.
For Example:
Piter likes ice-cream but Najib can’t eat it.
Bahasa Indonesia is one of the study program
in Pattimura university. It is placed at Poka
Campus.
Homophoric reference
is the kind of reference which comes from general
context of culture shared by members of a particular
world.
For example:
- If a person says “the earth is round”, then all
people should notice it and they should know which
earth being talked about since we live in the only
earth.
- “The president is trying his best to develop our
education system”.
10. When
we used?
Substitution & Ellipsis used when “a
speaker/writer wishes to avoid
repetition of a lexical item and draw
on one of the grammatical
resources of the language or
replace the item.”
11. Substitution
3 General ways of
substituting in a sentence :
1. Nominal substitution
( one and ones )
When a nound phrase is elided
or substitute
By using “ One and Ones “
Example :
1.This car is mine, but that one is
yours.
2.Let’s go and see the birds. Ones
are on the three.
2. Verbal Substitution
(DO)
When a verb phrase is elided or
substitute.
By using “Do”
Example :
Did Bella take that letter ? She might
have done
Do / do not and auxiliaries .
Example :
He can drive the car, but I cannot.
He wrote the homework, but I did not.
3. Clausal
Substitution
When entire clause or a large part
of it is elided or substitute.
By using “ So or Not”
Example :
Do you need a lift ? If so, wait for
me; If not I’ll see you there.
The replacement of a word / phrase with a “filler” word ( such as one, so, or do ) to avoid repetition
12. Ellipsis
Contents
Contents
The omission of
elements, normally
required by the
grammar which the
speaker/writer assumes
are obvious from the
context and therefore
need to be raised.
Ellipsis is distinguished
by the structure having
some missing
elements.
13. 3 Types of Ellipsis :
Nominal Ellipsis
Verbal Ellipsis
Casual Ellipsis
The omission of a noun head in a nominalgroup.
Example : Bella liked the green tiles: I preferred
the blue.
A verbal group whose structure does not fully
express its systematic features.
Example : what have you been doing?
Swimming.
The omission of a part of the clause of
elements or all of it.
Example :
If you could be back here at five thirty, I’d like
you to be back here at five thirty.
If you could, I’d like you to be
backhere at five thirty.
14. Elaboration. One clause that expands another
by elaborating on it. e.g : in other words, for
example , by the way, anyway.
1
Extension. One clause that expands another
by extanding beyond it by adding some new
element.e.g : and , moreover, but, however
2
Enhancement. One clause that expands
another by embellishing arround it by qualifying
it with some circumtantial seatures of time,
place, cause, or condition.e.g : finally, next,
therefore.
3
Types of Conjunctions ( Halliday, 1985 )
Conjuction
Acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or
sections of text in such a way as to
demonstrate a meaningful pattern between
them.
15. Sub types of conjunction
Additive
Acts to structurally coordinate by
adding the presupposed item devided
into positive and negative.
e.g : and, also, nor, etc.
Adversative
Conjunction which relates two
clauses that state contras each other.
e.g : but, on the other hand, however,
etc.
Temporal
e.g : The, next, before that, in the
end, soon, next time, this moment.
Causal
Relate to result , reason, or purpose
e.g : consequence, for that
purpose.
17. THEME AND
RHEME
M.A.K. Halliday
(1985)
Theme functions
as the ‘starting
point for the
message’ the
element which the
clause is going to
be ‘about’ and
rheme is the rest of
the message,
which provides the
additional
information added
to the starting
point.
Gerrot and
Wignell
(1994)
Theme as
the
element(s)
which
come(s)
first in the
clause, and
the rest of
the clause
is called
rheme.
Thornbury
(2005)
What the
sentence is
about (its
topic) and
what the
writer or
speaker
wants to tell
you about
the topic
(the
comment)
20. • The ideational or topical theme is
usually but not always the first
nominal group in the clause. Topical
themes may also be nominal group
complexes, adverbial groups, and
prepositional phrases or embedded
clauses.
• Topical themes serves as participant,
circumstance, process.
Ideational Theme
