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Developing the curriculum chapter 15
1.
CHAPTER 15: CURRENT CURRICULUM
ISSUES Developing the Curriculum Eighth Edition Peter F. Oliva William R. Gordon II
2.
AFTER STUDYING THIS
CHAPTER YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO: • Identify twelve current and continuing curriculum issues that are brought about by social and political forces and explain their significance. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-2 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
3.
ISSUE ONE:
ACADEMIC AREA INITIATIVES • Academic area initiatives are curriculum developments that have been undertaken to correct perceived lacks in the schools’ course offerings. • Initiatives may apply to changes in programmatic responses to satisfy current curriculum goals or may be dramatic revisions of those goals, changing the academic programs radically. In this section we will look generally at forces effecting academic changes. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-3 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
4.
ISSUE ONE:
ACADEMIC AREA INITIATIVES • Reform remains a central theme of American education. • Among the goals of current proposals for reform are increasing the number of students graduating from high school with the regular diploma, preparation of students for success in college and the workforce, and the preservation (some would say resurrection) of America’s standing as an economic power and world leader. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-4 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
5.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING
ARRANGEMENTS • In the 1960s and 1970s school districts were engaged in efforts to accommodate students who could not fare well in the established public schools by offering options either within or outside the school. • Among the more common alternatives outside the established schools were the so-called free schools, storefront schools, and schools without walls in which individuals, organizations, and businesses in the community participated in the education of youth. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-5 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
6.
ISSUE TWO:
ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING ARRANGEMENTS In the 1960s and 1970s a common plan was the assignment of students to these learning stations for a portion of the day with the remainder of the day spent at the established school. This type of alternative has diminished in popularity to the point where we rarely hear of this kind of experimental offering. • Stillpopular, however, are alternatives within the school systems themselves, particularly magnet schools with their special foci. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-6 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
7.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING
ARRANGEMENTS • In addition to magnets, high-tech, state-of-the-art public model schools designed by corporations in cooperation with the school district, are currently popular. • Some school systems maintain alternative schools where students posing behavior problems are assigned for varying periods of time. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-7 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
8.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE
SCHOOLING ARRANGEMENTS • In recent years, pressure has been building for states to support parental choice of schools whether public or private. Wrapped up in the concept of school choice are movements toward school vouchers, tax credits, charter schools, and homeschooling, all strong and growing. • Choice of school within the public system, although resisted by some school administrators and school boards, is a less contentious issue than the larger issue of provision of public funds for parental choice of school from among private and parochial schools. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-8 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
9.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING
ARRANGEMENTS • Growing in popularity are the use of vouchers which allow parents to send their children to private schools. • The requirements for participation in voucher programs vary from state to state and community to community. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-9 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
10.
ISSUE TWO:
ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING ARRANGEMENTS • Supporters of voucher systems include private and parochial schools, the religious right, parents who are dissatisfied with public schools for one reason or another, parents and politicians who do not subscribe philosophically to a public education system. • Numbered among opponents of voucher systems are the teachers’ unions, parents who are satisfied with their public schools, parents and politicians who believe in a unifying public school system. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-10 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING
ARRANGEMENTS • Rapidly developing in the late 1990s and continuing to the present, charter schools have added another dimension to the element of school choice. • These schools may be housed within a school system or operated outside of the school system, they may or may not use public school personnel, and they may be run for or without profit. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-11 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
12.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE
SCHOOLING ARRANGEMENTS • Another popular option that also discomforts public school personnel is homeschooling and its variant of unschooling. • Homeschools seek to provide alternative education outside of the control of public school administrators and faculty. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-12 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
13.
ISSUE TWO: ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLING
ARRANGEMENTS • Parents may choose homeschooling for their children because they are dissatisfied with the secular nature of the public schools. Other claims are the lack of safety in the schools, drug use among students, lack of discipline and bullying, violence, large classes, peer pressures, and the forced socialization of their children with others whom they deem undesirable. • Those parents who reject the option of homeschooling see value in their children’s participation in the many extra classes offered in the public schools and their socializing with their classmates. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-13 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
14.
ISSUE THREE:
BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION • More than fifty-five million in the United States speak a language other than English. • As ethnic groups whose first language is other than English grow in size and power, more and more curriculum workers find themselves charged with the task of developing bilingual education programs. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-14 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
15.
ISSUE THREE:
BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION • Second-language instruction is not limited to the most widely spoken languages. Although bilingual education programs are offered in a number of languages, the largest number of students in bilingual programs are Hispanic. • Lau v. Nichols (1974) required instruction in English for Chinese-speaking education. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-15 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
16.
ISSUE THREE:
BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION • Bilingual education is an educational, linguistic, social, cultural, political, and economic issue. • As such, English-only and English-as-official language are points of contention. • The controversy over bilingual education brings into sharp focus the opposing philosophies of acculturation versus pluralism. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-16 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
17.
ISSUE THREE:
BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION • Curriculum planners as well as the public are also divided as to the exact definitions of “bilingual” and “bicultural.” • To some, bilingual education may simply mean setting up English classes for students who are not native speakers of English. Others often extend bilingual education to include additional dimensions, including teaching courses in the native language. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-17 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
18.
ISSUE THREE:
BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION • The resurgence of the melting-pot concept, with its emphasis on blending, has challenged the salad-bowl concept of pluralism. Those who support making English the official language note that throughout our nation’s history immigrants have learned English. • Proponents of bilingual education, however, believe that curtailment of bilingual education and designation of English as the official language are discriminatory. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-18 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
19.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• Schools in many communities throughout the United States find themselves enmeshed in a seemingly endless struggle with individuals and groups in the community seeking to censor textbooks and library books and to prohibit certain types of instruction or, conversely, to promote certain types of instruction. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-19 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
20.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• Attempts to remove library books, textbooks, and other teaching materials from the schools are frequent and widespread. • Underlying some of the protests over textbooks is the perennial conflict of differing secular and religious values in a pluralistic society and the interpretation of the Jeffersonian doctrine of separation of church and state, Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-20 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
21.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• Dissention arises from differing interpretations of the First Amendment. • Differing secular and religious values contribute to the dissention and protests are made on a variety of grounds, including religion, politics, race, sexuality, violence, and language. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-21 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
22.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• The U.S. Supreme Court in a 5–3 decision in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988) affirmed school officials’ authority to censor student publications. Hazelwood, in effect, permits censoring of articles that may reflect unfavorably on the school, as in the case of articles on religion, sex, drugs, alcohol, and even partisan political statements. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-22 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
23.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• In the Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to protest the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-23 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
24.
ISSUE FOUR: CENSORSHIP
• When dealing with controversial issues in the curriculum, curriculum planners should have channels through which they may determine the seriousness of problems, the strength of community feelings, and the ways in which issues might be resolved before they become magnified and disproportionate. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-24 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
25.
ISSUE FIVE: GENDER
• Gender inequity has been a perennial problem in education. • Gender as an issue in the schools revolves around practices in instruction, curriculum, and administration that result in one gender demonstrating higher achievement or having greater opportunities in certain fields and activities than the other, leading to inequity or discrimination. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-25 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
26.
ISSUE FIVE: GENDER
• Effortsare being made to eradicate vestiges of gender discrimination and to equalize opportunity between males and females. • Curriculum workers should design curricula that will help to eliminate bias, based not only on race, creed, and national origin, but if it exists, also on gender. School systems answer criticisms of gender discrimination through careful attention to curriculum and instruction, counseling, and staff development. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-26 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
27.
SINGLE-SEX CLASSES
• The federal government gave its blessing to single- sex education in late 2006 when it amended antidiscrimination regulations of Title IX permitting single-sex classes and single-sex schools as long as they are voluntary and the school district provides equal coeducational classes in the same subject. Since “separate but equal” did not hold in the case of race, some people wonder if “separate but equal” will endure in the case of gender. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-27 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
28.
ISSUE SIX: HEALTH
EDUCATION • In addition to offering long-standing programs of physical fitness, hygiene, and nutrition education, many schools are seeking ways to respond to the use and abuse of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco, to the high incidence of teen pregnancies, and to the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases, including acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-28 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
29.
ISSUE SIX: HEALTH
EDUCATION • Health-related problems pose the classic question to curriculum planners: 1. To what extent must the schools respond to problems of society? 2. What can the schools do about these overwhelming problems? 3. If educators agree that the schools can make some response, how will that response be made? Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-29 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
30.
ISSUE SIX: HEALTH
EDUCATION • Educators and the public, by-and-large, agree that the school has some responsibility for helping young people develop the knowledge and attitudes necessary to preserve and improve their own and the nation’s health. • Although public sentiment generally supports incorporating into health education efforts to safeguard and improve the physical and mental well- being of students, controversy in this area of the curriculum seems never to be completely dispelled. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-30 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
31.
ISSUE SIX: HEALTH
EDUCATION • In the area of sexuality or sex education, parents and other citizens of the community are in sharp disagreement. Attitudes range from support for strong sexuality education programs in the schools to avoidance of the topic. Since sexuality education is value-laden, some people believe the schools’ program should be confined to the academics, leaving moral education to the home and church. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-31 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
32.
ISSUE SEVEN:
MULTICULTURALISM/DIVERSITY • Among the more polarizing issues in education, ranking right along with religion, is the issue most commonly referred to as multiculturalism or diversity. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-32 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
33.
ISSUE SEVEN:
MULTICULTURALISM/DIVERSITY • Ever since the courts ruled segregation of the races unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), efforts have been under way to racially integrate the schools. Problem areas have included curriculum materials that were slanted toward white, middle-class culture to teaching methods, testing, and administrative practices such as busing, desegregation of faculties, and methods of discipline. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-33 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
34.
ISSUE SEVEN:
MULTICULTURALISM/DIVERSITY • To reduce racial conflict and prevent racial problems from arising, many school systems have established multiracial committees whose task it is to recommend solutions to tensions and incidents of conflict among racial groups. • The thrust of desegregation efforts is shifting from the physical movement of pupils to securing racial balance in the schools to reconstruction of the curriculum. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-34 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
35.
ISSUE SEVEN:
MULTICULTURALISM/DIVERSITY • Like so many concepts in education, multiculturalism can be and is interpreted in a variety ways from students’ learning to work together and appreciate each other’s culture, to equalizing attention paid to all cultures in the schools • The core issue in multiculturalism or cultural diversity is the struggle for predominance between the melting-pot and salad-bowl concepts. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-35 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
36.
ISSUE SEVEN:
MULTICULTURALISM/DIVERSITY • Determining what responses schools should make to the cultural diversity of our population is one of the major challenges for curriculum workers. The issue of multiculturalism and plural values versus cultural mainstreaming and common values has grown in intensity in the public school setting. • Educating all children and raising the achievement level of those individuals and groups who are not now succeeding in the schools should be a core mission of all curriculum developers. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-36 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
37.
ISSUE EIGHT: PRIVATIZATION
• Privatization as applied to education in its essence is the shift from public to private control of schools. • Privatization presumes that Education Management Organizations (EMOs), following free-market business principles, released from restrictions imposed by state and locality, can be more successful in terms of student achievement than the present governmental system of school administration and supervision. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-37 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
38.
ISSUE EIGHT: PRIVATIZATION
•A form of privatization which calls for management of existing schools with existing faculty with ultimate control retained by the school board is known as Contracting. • Contractual schools, unlike many charter schools, remain public schools albeit with private management whereas independent for-profit charter schools of the EMOs hire their own faculty and provide their own curricula. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-38 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
39.
ISSUE EIGHT: PRIVATIZATION
• Private entrepreneurs maintain that they can offer more efficient administration and improve student achievement at less cost than under public school management. • Controversy centers around results of student achievement, costs of operation, quality of facilities and teaching staff, and quality and quantity of materials and supplies. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-39 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
40.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • Special need students are categorized as students with learning difficulties, emotional disorders, educational deficiencies, physical and mental impairment, and gifted. • One of the earmarks of restructured schools is the effort to include (Inclusion) as many pupils as possible who evidence special needs within the framework of the regular class. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-40 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
41.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • Early one-room schools functioned on a multiage, multigrade principle. As schools grew larger and graded, they cared for the needs of pupils in heterogeneous groups retaining age of students as the primary form of grouping. • Through the mid-twentieth century, ability or homogeneous grouping became popular. Schools ability-grouped students by intelligence and, in isolated cases, by achievement. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-41 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
42.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • Proponents felt brighter students would not be held back by slower students and each group could move at its own pace. • Critics maintained that ability grouping denies students the opportunity to associate with all kinds of students and leads to lowering of self-esteem of those placed in the slower sections. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-42 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
43.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • Today ability-groupin of students is generally frowned on for both philosophical and pedagogical reasons. Key concepts in the instruction of students with special needs are mainstreaming and inclusion. • Public Law 94-192, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, are key provisions in this area. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-43 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
44.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • Conforming to P.L. 94-192, schools must make special provisions to ensure that all handicapped children receive a “free and appropriate” education and in “the least restrictive environment.” • At the present time the popular means of organizing the curriculum for students with special needs is inclusion or full inclusion, which broadens the concept of mainstreaming Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-44 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
45.
ISSUE NINE:
PROVISION FOR EXCEPTIONALITIES • It is apparent that shifting to an inclusive model of instruction necessitates fundamental modifications in school philosophy and practices. Legislation may well speed the move toward inclusive education. Laws providing for special needs of students furnish a clear illustration of the impact that federal legislation can have on the curriculum planner. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-45 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
46.
ISSUE TEN:
RELIGION IN PUBLIC EDUCATION • The words found in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution are the center of conflicts over freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly. Almost daily there is news of a lawsuit that contends infringement of one or more of these freedoms. • Time and again the U.S. Supreme Court has reaffirmed the doctrine of separation of church and state. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-46 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
47.
ISSUE TEN:
RELIGION IN PUBLIC EDUCATION • Some examples of practices that have most often necessitated court adjudication are prayer or reading of Bible passages in the classroom and at school-sponsored events, Bible study, use of public moneys to aid sectarian schools, celebration of religious holidays, teaching of evolution, pledging allegiance to the American flag, and permitting religious groups to meet in the school. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-47 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
48.
ISSUE TEN:
RELIGION IN PUBLIC EDUCATION • The debate over secular versus sectarian curricula for the public schools will be difficult to resolve because strong emotions, values, and fundamental beliefs about life and death underscore the controversy. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-48 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
49.
ISSUE ELEVEN: SCHEDULING
• Reforms of the mid-1990s to the present have wrought a restructuring of many schools’ instructional time schedules. • Changes in the daily hourly schedule have affected primarily the secondary school. Look at the bell schedule of many high schools today and you’ll fast discover that periods have been lengthened and courses no longer meet five days a week for equal amounts of time according to the time-honored Carnegie unit. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-49 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
50.
ISSUE ELEVEN: SCHEDULING
• In addition to changes in daily schedules, dissatisfaction with student achievement has resulted in calls for alterations in schools’ schedules through extending the school year and/or year- round education. Behind the rationale for the lengthened school year was the perception that student achievement would rise given additional exposure to the subject matter. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-50 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
51.
ISSUE ELEVEN: SCHEDULING
• More subject to debate than lengthening the school period, day, or year is the movement toward year- round education, a further reaction to the traditional schedule. Most proponents of YRE point out that the traditional calendar is a product of an agrarian society that required young people to work on farms in the summers. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-51 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
52.
ISSUE ELEVEN: SCHEDULING
• Both class size and school size are subjects of considerable disagreement. Some educators take the position that what goes on in the classroom is more important than class size. Many express the belief that classes can become too large in a time when teachers are charged with meeting the individual interests and needs of a diverse student population. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-52 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
53.
ISSUE ELEVEN: SCHEDULING
• School size presents an additional area of controversy. Some educators as well as parents defend the construction and operation of large schools for the broad curricular and extra-class programs they can offer. • On the other hand, the movement to small schools and small learning communities has become decidedly pronounced in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-53 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
54.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • Perhaps the most pervasive and contentious issue discussed in this chapter is standards-based education. In spite of a backlash in some states against the consequences of standards-based assessment the movement toward setting standards, making schools and teachers accountable, and assessing student achievement remains strong. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-54 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
55.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • In past years, local school districts on their own initiative specified standards they wished their students to achieve, aligned the curriculum with the local standards, and tested to learn whether students had achieved the standards. If students were not successful, schools devised their own remedial procedures. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-55 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
56.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • Where the present standards movement differs from other efforts is in the creation of state and national standards coupled with state-created standardized tests of students’ achievement of the standards. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-56 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
57.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • It is on the basis of standardized assessment, referred to as high-stakes testing, that students, teachers, and schools are rewarded or punished. • Rewards include favorable publicity, students’ promotion, and increased funding. • Punishments include unfavorable reports to the public, students’ retention in grade, withholding the high school diploma, and permitting parental choice of private or parochial school through taxpayer-paid vouchers or tax credits. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-57 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
58.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • Currently, pressure from the federal level in the form of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) has made the most impact on in the area on standards-based reform. • The standards movement evokes strong opinions on both sides of the issue. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-58 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
59.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • Opponents of standards object to the entire direction education has taken toward specifying uniform standards and assessment, whether national or state, whether voluntary or mandated, holding that schools should be more concerned about curricula that foster student self-esteem and bringing about improvements in American society. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-59 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
60.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • In spite of the fact that objections have been leveled at the standards movement, the specification of state and national standards remains popular with the public, the business community, and those whom the public has elected to office. High-stakes exit exams that determine high school graduation have become a common manifestation of the state-standards movement. Schools have rapidly increased the requirements in mathematics and science. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-60 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
61.
ISSUE TWELVE:
STANDARDS/ASSESSMENT • In the early years of the twenty-first century we see a pronounced movement toward the specification of content standards and the assessment of those standards, including the use of high-stakes tests to determine grade retention and high school graduation. • Currently, the Common Core State Standards in English and mathematics, developed under the direction of the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers, have been adopted by a majority of states. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-61 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
62.
IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED FOR
CURRICULUM REFORM • Professional issues that have an impact on the curriculum: the need for improved consensus building, the need for more and better research, the need for better means of disseminating the results of curriculum research and experimentation, the need for improved training programs for curriculum developers, and the need to clarify the role of teacher organizations in curriculum improvement are all areas that need to be improved for curriculum reform. Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-62 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
63.
A FINAL THOUGHT:
• In this chapter we have examined twelve current curriculum issues of direct concern to curriculum planners. These and other current issues, brought about by social and political forces, are areas that curriculum workers must be aware of as they attempt to develop curricula Oliva/Gordon Developing the Curriculum, 8e. 15-63 © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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