Cropping systems definition, indices and its importance; physical resources, soil and water management in cropping systems; assessment of land us

1. Dr. K.K. AGRAWAL
Associate Professor
Dept.-Agronomy

2. Cropping systems definition,
Indices and its importance;
Physical resources, soil and water
management in cropping systems;
Assessment of land use
Plant ideotypes for drylands;
Plant growth regulators and their
role in sustainability

3. The term ideotype introduced by Donald
in1968
Accor. To him ideotype: is a biological model
which expected to perform or behave in
predictable manner in a defined environment
The term have following synonyms
 Model plant type
 Ideal model plant type
 Ideal plant type

4. INTRODUCTION
 The term ideotype introduced by Donald in1968
 Accor. To him ideotype: is a biological model
which expected to perform or behave in
predictable manner in a defined environment
 The term have following synonyms
 Model plant type
 Ideal model plant type
 Ideal plant type

5. Types of Ideotypes
Isolation Ideotype
Competition Ideotype
Crop Ideotype

6. Isolation ideotype:
It is the model plant type that performs
best when the plants are space-planted. In case of
cereals. isolation ideotype is lax, free- tiSllering.
Competition ideotype:
This ideotype performs well in genetically
heterogeneous populations, such as the segregating
generations of crosses. In case of cereals,
competition ideotype is tall, leafy, free- tillering
plant that is able to shade its less aggressive
neighbours and, thereby, gain a larger share of
radiation, nutrients and water.

7. Crop ideotype:
This ideotype performs best at commercial
crop densities because it is a poor competitor. It
performs well when it is surrounded by plants of the
same form. But it performs less well when it is
surrounded by plants of other forms, e.g.,
competition ideotype, and also in isolation.
In case of cereals, a crop ideotype is erect,
separately tillered plant, with small erect leaves

8. Market ideotype:
Includes traits like seed colour, seed size,
cooking and backing quality, etc. since these traits
determine the market acceptability of the produce.
Climatic ideotype:
Includes traits important in climatic
adaptation, e.g., early maturity, thermo-period
insensitivity, heat and cold tolerance, drought
tolerance, photoperiod-insensitivity, etc.
Stress ideotype: (traits: resistance to the
concerned a biotic and biotic stresses),
Disease/pest ideotype: (traits: resistance to the
concerned diseases and insect pests), etc.

9. CHARACTERISTICS OF A CROP
IDEOTYPE:
It should he a weak competitor.
That is able to accept all the photosynthate
either from its own green surface or from other
parts of the plant.
An ideotype will be the most efficient in
utilizing its environmental resources.
The ideotype, must include morphological
and physiological characteristics that result in a
high harvest index
A crop ideotype must be grown, as far as
possible, in a weed-free situation in view of it being
a weak competitor.

10. STEPS IN IDEOTYPE DEVELOPMENT:
Donald (1968) suggested that the asic ideotype
should he first developed for the optimum,
nonlimiting environment.
Quality considerations would determine the
limits to size, shape, etc. of the economic parts.
Current agronomic practices would determine
the limits to plant stature, branching and other
features.
It should now be assessed as to what changes
in particular traits would improve yield potential in
the target environment.
The choice of characters to be included in an
ideotype will also depend on certain other
considerations

11. IDEOTYPES OF
SELECTED
CROPS

12. BARLEY
 (I) a short, strong stem;
 (2) a few, small, erect leaves;
 (3) a high harvest index;
 (4) an erect car;
 (5) awns; and
 (6) a single culm.

13. Wheat
 Short Strong Stem.
 Erect Leaves
 Few Small Leaves
 Large Ear
 Erect Ear
 Presence of Awns
 Single Culm

14. Maize
 Stiff-vertically-oriented
leaves above the ear;
 Maximum photosynthetic
efficiency
 Efficient translocation of
photosynthate into grain.
 Small tassel size.
 Cold tolerance of
germinating seeds and
developing seedlings.

15. Rice
 Shorter Culm length.
(100 cm or less)
 Greater Culm diameter.
 High tillering capacity
 High (55% or more)
harvest index
 Lower relative
internodes elongation

16. Irrigated Cotton
 Plants of short stature (90-
120 cm)
 Compact and sympodial
plant habit
 Short duration
 Responsive to high
fertilizer dose.
 High degree of resistance
to insect pests and
diseases.
 boll size in proposed to be
between 3.5 and 4 g.

17. General plant Ideotype concept in
pulses
 Determinate plant type
 Erect and upright plant
 Average plant height
 Early vigour, early flowering and synchronous
maturity
 Pod bearing from well above the soil surface
 More pods/plant and more number of seeds
/pod
 High harvest index
 Yield stability

18. Rainfed cotton
 Few smaller and thick
leaves with sparse
hairiness.
 Medium to big boll size
(3.5 to 4 g).
 Responsive to nutrients.
 High degree of resistance
to insects and diseases.
 Synchronous boiling
habit.
 Short stature (75-80 cm)

19. LIMITATIONS OF IDEOTYPE BREEDING
 It has not been possible to identify individual traits that
enhance yield universally or in a relatively limited
genetic and environmental situations.
 costly and time taking, while their usefulness is not
well established.
 An ideotype breeder may place a higher priority on
obtaining genetic diversity for single traits than would
be beneficial in the long run.

20. Croping System

21.  Cropping system: is an important component of a
farming system. It represents cropping pattern used
on a farm and their interaction with farm resources,
other farm enterprises and available technology which
determine their make up. Copping pattern: means the
proportion of area under various crops at a point of
time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence
and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an
area.
 Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops
are grown on individual plot of a farm during a given
period of time with the object of obtaining maximum
return from each crop without impairing soil fertility.
Thus a cropping scheme is related to the most
profitable use of resources, land, labour, capital, and
management.

22.  Types of Cropping System:
 Mono cropping: refers to growing of only one crop on
a piece of land year after year. E.g. under rainfed
conditions shorgum is grown year after year.
 Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the
same piece of land in one calendar year is known as
multiple cropping. It is intensification of cropping in
space and time dimensions. It includes intercropping,
mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
 Double cropping: Growing of two crops in a year in
sequence. Tripple cropping and Quadruple cropping
 Competition effect: Competition of intercropped spp.
For light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide, and other
growth factors.
 Complementary effect: Effect of one component on
another which enhances growth and productivity.

23.  Intercropping: Intercropping is growing two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row
pattern. For example growing maize + green gram in 2:1 ratio
 Mixed cropping: is growing two or more crops simultaneously
intermingled without any row pattern. It is common practice in
most of dry land areas
 Sequence cropping: sequence cropping can be defined as
growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same piece of
land in a farming year. Parallel cropping: Cultivation of such
crops which have different natural habit and zero competition
e.g. Black gram /green gram+miaze. The peak nutrient demand
period for green gram is around 30-35 DAS while it is 50 DAS
for maize.
 Multi-storied/multi-tiered cropping/multi-level: Cultivation of two
or more than two crops of different heights simultaneously on a
certain piece of land in a certain period e.g.,

24.  Sustainable agriculture is a form of agriculture aimed at meeting
the needs of present generation without endangering the
resource base of future generation. It is the practice of farming
using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between
organisms and their environment. It has been defined as "an
integrated system of plant and animal production practices
having a site-specific application that will last over the long term.
 Contour farming is the practice of tilling sloped land along lines
of consistent elevation in order to conserve rainwater and to
reduce soil losses from surface erosion. These objectives are
achieved by means of furrows, crop rows, and wheel tracks
across slopes, all of which act as reservoirs to catch and retain
rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and more uniform
distribution of the
 Crop rotation: The practice of planting a succession of crops in a
field over a period of years. Rotations can maintain field fertility

25.  Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and
practices in which woody perennials are deliberately integrated
with crops and/or animals on the same land management unit.
The integration can be either in a spatial mixture or in a
temporal sequence. There are normally both ecological and
economic interactions between woody and non-woody
components in agroforestry.
 Alley cropping: Agroforestry, farm forestry and family forestry
can be broadly understood as the commitment of farmers, alone
or in partnerships, towards the establishment and management
of forests on their land. Where many landholders are involved
the result is a diversity of activity that reflects the diversity of
aspirations and interests within the community. Alley cropping,
sometimes referred to as 'sun systems', is a form of
intercropping.

26.  Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on
techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and
biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control
pests on a farm. Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the
use of manufactured fertilizers, pesticides (which include
herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators
such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and
genetically modified organisms. It relies on ecological
processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.
 Permaculture is an approach to create stable, productive
systems that provide for human needs; it's a system of design
where each element supports and feeds other elements,
ultimately aiming at systems that are virtually self-sustaining and
into which humans fit as an integral part. Deforestation is the
removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter
converted to a non forest use. Examples of deforestation include

27.  Agro-ecology: is the application of ecological principles to the
production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term
encompasses a broad range of approaches, scientific practice.
 Silvi-pasture: Silvipastures combine livestock grazing on forage
crops or pastures within actively managed tree or shrub crops.
Cattle, sheep and goats are the most common livestock
incorporated into silvipasture systems and they may be
deployed entirely within a private farm/woodlot silvi-pasture or
through collaborative arrangements between forest licensees
and livestock producers on public lands.

28. amaljood@gmail.com
There are different ways of
growing crops. These
different ways can be used
to give maximum benefit.
They are called Cropping
Patterns .
There are many types of
cropping patterns

29. amaljood@gmail.com
Growing of two or more
crops simultaneously and
intermingled on the same
piece of land without row
arrangements are called
Mixed Cropping.
This reduces risk and gives
some insurance against
failure of one of the crops.

30. amaljood@gmail.com
Intercropping is growing
two or more crops
simultaneously on the
same field in a definite
pattern . A few rows of
one crop alternate with a
few rows of a second
crop.

31. amaljood@gmail.com
The growing of different crops
on a piece of land in a pre-
planned succession is known
as crop rotation. The
availability of moisture and
irrigation facilities decide the
choice of the crop to be
cultivated after one harvest.

32. amaljood@gmail.com
Cropping pattern which involve the
raising of crops, animals and or
trees.
One of the important methods of
intensive cropping, allowing the
stubbles of the original crop to
strike again after harvesting and to
raise another crop.

33. amaljood@gmail.com
One crop variety grown alone in
pure stands at normal density.
Also known as solid planting
The repetitive
growing of the same
sole crop on the
same land.

34. Plant Growth Regulators
and Their Role in Crop
Improvement

35. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ARE NECESSARY FOR, BUT
DO NOT CONTROL, MANY ASPECTS OF PLANT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT. - BETTER NAME IS GROWTH REGULATOR.
 THE EFFECT ON PLANT PHYSIOLOGY IS DEPENDENT ON THE
AMOUNT OF HORMONE PRESENT AND TISSUE SENSITIVITY
TO THE PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR
 substances produced in small quantities by a plant, and then
transported elsewhere for use
 have capacity to stimulate and/or inhibit physiological processes
 at least five major plant hormones or plant growth regulators:
 auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid

36. General plant hormones
 Auxins (cell elongation)
 Gibberellins (cell elongation + cell division -
translated into growth)
 Cytokinins (cell division + inhibits senescence)
 Abscisic acid (abscission of leaves and fruits +
dormancy induction of buds and
seeds)
 Ethylene (promotes senescence, epinasty, and fruit
ripening)

37. Auxin
 Auxin increases the plasticity of plant cell walls and is involved in stem
elongation.
 Arpad Paál (1919) - Asymmetrical placement of cut tips on coleoptiles
resulted in a bending of the coleoptile away from the side onto which the
tips were placed (response mimicked the response seen in phototropism).
 Frits Went (1926) determined auxin enhanced cell elongation.

38. Additional responses to auxin
 parthenocarpy
 flower initiation
 sex determination
 fruit development
 apical dominance
 rooting

39. Gibberellins
 Gibberellins are named after the fungus Gibberella
fujikuroi which causes rice plants to grow abnormally
tall.
 synthesized in apical portions of stems and roots
 important effects on stem elongation

40. Effects of Gibberellins
 Cell elongation.
• GA induces cellular division and cellular elongation; auxin induces
cellular elongation alone.
• GA-stimulated elongation does not involve the cell wall
acidification characteristic of auxin-induced elongation
• Breaking of dormancy in buds and seeds.
• Seed Germination - Especially in cereal grasses, like barley. Not
necessarily as critical in dicot seeds.
 Promotion of flowering.
 Transport is non-polar, bidirectional producing general responses.

42. Abscisic Acid
 Abscisic acid is produced chiefly in mature green
leaves and in fruits.
 suppresses bud growth and promotes leaf senescence
 also plays important role in controlling stomatal opening
and closing

43. Functions of ethylene
 Gaseous in form and rapidly diffusing.
 Gas produced by one plant will affect nearby plants.
 Fruit ripening.
 Epinasty – downward curvature of leaves.
 Encourages senescence and abscission.
 Initiation of stem elongation and bud development.
 Flowering - Ethylene inhibits flowering in most species, but
promotes it in a few plants such as pineapple, bromeliads, and
mango.
 Sex Expression - Cucumber buds treated with ethylene become carpellate (female)
flowers, whereas those treated with gibberellins become staminate (male) flowers.

44. Plant growth regulators

45. Effect of plant growth regulators and natural supplements on in vitro morphogenesis of
Pogostemon cablin Benth. (A) Initiation of shoots on MS + 0.5 mg L-1 BA. (B) Callus
formation on MS + 0.1 mg L-1 BA. (C) Shoot multiplication on MS + 0.5 mg L-1 BA and 0.5
mg L-1 KN. (D) Shoot multiplication on MS + 10% coconut water. € Rooting of shoots on MS
(½) + activated charcoal (100 mg L-1). (F) Directly acclimatized plantlet in the soil. (G) In
vitro-grown plant in the field.
Swamy et al. 2014 J. Crop Sci. Biotech. 17 (2) : 1-7

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