Advice on Academic Writing

1. Some general advice on
Academic Essay - writing
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

2. Some general advice
If you want to write an essay, There are certain aspects that you have to take into account:
The first step in academic essay writing is to determine your topic and develop a thesis statement,
which is simply a concise statement of your essay’s main idea
▪ Argument: It answers a questions and tries to PROVE something by reasoning and evidences
(You can include examples and qoutes in order to)
▪ Hypothesis:To formulate questions , developing pros and cons
▪ Organization: Including beginning, development and conclusión.
▪ Methods: Essay writers recommend : To revise extensively. Rather than writing a single draft
and then merely editing its sentences one by one. You have to attend to the whole essay and
draft and redraft, adding and deleting sections to take account of what they discover in the
course of composition .
Pay attention to transitions—that is, checking to be sure that a reader will be able to follow the
sequences of ideas within sentences, from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph.

3. Understanding EssayTopics
Some tips to develop a topic for your essay
 Note the key terms:To look for the specific vocabulary of the topic
 The concepts and methods: Note which concepts or methods the topic asks you to
use. Are you to argue a point with others, or to explore your own responses? Does the
topic ask you to go into depth about some special material? .An essay assignment
expects you to use course concepts and ways of thinking
 Generate ideas: Look for controversies, ask questions about the specific topic in terms
of the concepts or methods that seem applicable.
 Tentative thesis statement : It is a statement of your own likely position in the
controversy that most interests you, or your preliminary answer to an important
interpretive question. It will help you focus your investigation.

4. WRITER’S BLOCK
When you feel stuck and unable to write there are a few questions that will help you to
improve your writings process. Below you have some of them to assist you in those
moments.
▪ Do you understand the assignment?
▪ Have you done enough research?
▪ Do you have a topic?
▪ Have you written a paper like this before?
▪ Are you worried about sounding smart enough?
▪ Do you find the introduction difficult to write?

5. Planning and organizing
When is the best moment to start planning? The pre- writing stage.
When you begin planning, ask the following questions:
▪ What type of essay am I going to be writing?
▪ Does it belong to a specific genre?
Knowing the patterns of reasoning associated with a genre can help you to
structure your essay.
Be aware that genres are not fixed

6. Avoiding a common pitfall
Remember these simple principles
The structure of an essay should not be determined by the
structure of its source material.
If your essay is not well structured, then its overall weaknesses
will show through in the individual paragraphs.

7. What does an essay OUTLINE look like?
Most essay outlines will never be handed in.They are meant to serve
YOU and no one else. the point is to ensure that you are on the right
track. When you produce your outline, you should follow certain basic
principles:
 Chronological outline
Topic outline
Formal outline
Sentence outline

8. When should I begin putting together a plan?
The earlier you begin planning, the better.
Some techniques for integrating note-taking and planning
 Index cards: write ideas, facts, quotations and phrases. Collect your cards and
reshuffle them in the best possible order.
 The computer: Collect your items as you would do on paper.You can then sort of ideas
when you start planning.
 The circle method: write your ideas into circles, once you have all your ideas on paper
, start drawing lines between the circles to CONNECT them.

9. UsingThesis Statements
The reader expects a clear statement of your position.
This statement comes in the first paragraph of the essay.
It should make a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained
and supported by further discussion
It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument
It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements

10. Introductions and Conclusions
The following guidelines will help you to construct a suitable beginning
and end for your essay.
INTRODUCTIONS CONCLUSIONS
 A good introduction should identify your
topic, provide essential context, and indicate
your particular focus in the essay.
 Be aware of the dangers of sinking too much
time into the introduction
 Remember that you may at a later stage
need to compress your introduction.
 The size of your introduction should bear
some relationship to the length and
complexity of your paper.
 Get to the point as soon as possible
 Don’t provide dictionary definitions
 A strong conclusion will provide a sense of
closure to the essay while again placing your
concepts in a somewhat wider context.
 It is a re-statement of your thesis
 It involves critical thinking
 Try to convey some closing thoughts about
the larger implications of your argument.
 Good last sentence leaves your reader with
something to think about,

11. What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a series of
related sentences developing a
central idea, called the topic
To achieve paragraph unity
is to express the central idea of
the paragraph in a topic
sentence
A topic sentence has a
specific main point (in the
paragraph)
A topic sentence has a
unifying function
In academic writing, the topic
sentence nearly always works
best at the beginning of a
paragraph so that the reader
knows what to expect

12. How do I develop my ideas in a
paragraph?
There are several techniques for expanding and developing your ideas in a
paragraph:
 Illustration: It supports a general statement by means of examples, details, or
relevant quotations (with your comments).
 Definition: to define terms (avoid using of dictionary)
 Analysis –classification: It develops a topic by distinguishing its component parts and
discussing each of these parts separately.
 Comparison: two sources, positions or ideas contrasted
 Qualification: It shows that the topic is not always applicable.
 Process: It involves a straightforward step-by-step description which often follows a
chronological sequence.

13. Reading and researching
Critical reading Critical writing
Critical writing depends on critical reading.
To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is
argued
THE KEY ISTHIS:
▪ don’t read looking only or primarily for information
▪ do read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter
▪ Try to determine the central claims or purpose of the text (its thesis)
▪ Distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs
▪ Examine the evidence (the supporting facts, examples, etc) the text employs
▪ Critical reading may involve evaluation.Your reading of a text is already critical if it accounts for
and makes a series of judgments about how a text is argued

14. TAKING NOTES EFFICIENTLY
▪ 1. Know what kind of ideas you need to record: You have to focus on the
topic before you start yout detailed research.Then you will read with a
purpose in mind, and you will be able to sort out relevant ideas.
▪ 2. Don’t write down too much: Your essay must be an expression of your
own thinking, not a patchwork of borrowed ideas
▪ 3. Label your notes intelligently : Take notes in a way that allows for
later use.Try writing notes in separate cards or sheets or even divided by
topics

15. Skimming and Scanning
It is necessary to get a general overview of the text before beginning to read a text in
detail.The are two main techniques : SKIMMING and SCANNING
Read carefully the introductory paragraph and try to predict the direction of the coming
explanations or arguments.
keep your eyes moving and try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words or terminology.Your
goal is to pick up the larger concepts and something of the overall pattern and significance
of the text
Try to pick up the largest concepts and principal patters of the text
Read carefully the CONCLUSION.What’s the author purpose?

16. Using Quotations
Consider quoting a passage from one of your sources if any of the following conditions holds:
▪ The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.
▪ You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority on your topic.
▪ The passage is worthy of further analysis.
▪ You wish to argue with someone else’s position in considerable detail.
▪ If an argument or a factual account from one of your sources is particularly relevant to
your paper but does not deserve to be quoted verbatim, consider:
▪ Paraphrasing the passage if you wish to convey the points in the passage at roughly the
same level of detail as in the original
▪ Summarizing the relevant passage if you wish to sketch only the most essential points in
the passage

17. Paraphrase and Summary
Paraphrase means to restate someone else’s ideas in your own language at roughly the
same level of detail.
▪ Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points:
▪ You must provide a reference.
▪ The paraphrase must be in your own words.You must do more than merely substitute
phrases here and there.You must also create your own sentence structures.
To summarize means to reduce the most essential points of someone else’s work into a
shorter form.
When you summarize a passage, you need to absorb the meaning and then to capture in
your own words the most important elements from the original passage. A summary is
necessarily shorter than a paraphrase.
They allow you to include
other people’s ideas
without cluttering up
your paragraphs with
quotations

18. SpecificTypes ofWriting
The Book Review or Article Critique
It comments on and evaluates the work in the light of
specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course.
keep questions like these in mind as you read, make notes,
and write the review:
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article?What
overall purpose does it seem to have?
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis?
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall
topic of your course?
4. What general problems and concepts in your
discipline and course does it engage with?
5. What theoretical issues and topics for further
discussion does the work raise?
Annotated bibliography
An annotated bibliography gives an account of the
research that has been done on a given topic. It is an
alphabetical list of research sources.
 It provides a concise summary of each source and
some assessment of its value or relevance
▪ Depending on your assignment, an annotated
bibliography may be one stage in a larger research
project, or it may be an independent project
standing on its own.

19. The Comparative Essay
Make sure you know the basis for
comparison
The assignment sheet may say exactly what
you need to compare, or it may ask you to
come up with a basis for comparison yourself.
DON’T FORGET!
 To Develop a list of similarities and
differences
 To Develop a thesis based on the relative
weight of similarities and differences
 Come up with a structure for your essay.
▪ What is a comparative essay?
A comparative essay asks that you compare at
least two (possibly more) items.These items
will differ depending on the assignment.You
might be asked to compare
▪ positions on an issue (e.g., responses to
midwifery in Canada and the United States)
▪ theories (e.g., capitalism and communism)
▪ figures (e.g., GDP in the United States and
Britain)
▪ texts (e.g., Shakespeare’s Hamletand
Macbeth)
▪ events (e.g., the Great Depression and the
global financial crisis of 2008–9)

20. Writing about History
Primary Sources and Secondary Sources
A primary source is a document that was
created at the time of the event or subject
you’ve chosen to study or by people who were
observers of or participants in that event or
topic.
What makes the source a “primary” source is
when it was made, not what it is.
Secondary sources:You need to find out what
other scholars have written about your topic. If
they’ve used the same sources you were
thinking of using and reached the same
conclusions, there’s no point in repeating their
work, so you should look for another topic
Your goal is to choose a topic and write a paper
that:
▪ Asks a good historical question
▪ Tells how its interpretation connects to
previous work by other historians, and
Writing about
Literature
Some tips:
Avoid plot summary: mention only plot
details that are relevant to your argument
A good thesis is a statement of roughly one
to three sentences that says something
intelligent about a literary work
Let the structure of your argument
determine the structure of your paper
Let the structure of your argument
determine the structure of your paper
Opt for analysis instead of evaluative
judgments
Integrate quotations fully into your
argument

21. Writing in the
Sciences
You have to take into account the following
ítems:
Audience:science writers need to be particularly
aware because readers of science-related writing
can have very different levels of knowledge (fellow
scientists or a general audience)
Titles: sentence fragments
Headings: Headings emphasize the systematic
nature of scientific enquiry.They also provide an
excellent organizational tool
Jargon:refers to technical terminology common
to a discipline, The main function of jargon is
compression
Passive voice: passive voice helps emphasize the
objectivity of the sciences
Tense:The two most common tenses in science
papers are present and past
Writing a Philosophy
Essay
To write a philosophy essay you have to:
 Understand such philosophical questions and the
concepts, arguments, and theories that
philosophers use to address them
 Think critically about such arguments and theories
 Develop their own answers to philosophical
questions
 Read theTexts Carefully, Asking Questions
 OrganizeYour Ideas into a Logical Structure:
philosophy papers proceed by logical argument
 AugmentYourThesis with a Road Map that Reveals
the Structure ofYour Argument
 ShowYour Understanding through Clear and
Accurate Exposition:
 Critically Evaluate a PhilosophicalTheory

22. Revising: It gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of
the eventual reader. Good revision and editing can transform a mediocre
first draft into an excellent final paper
Here are some steps to follow on your own:
 First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment
Have you performed the kind of thinking the assignment sheet asked for?
 Have you written the genre of document called for ?
Have you used concepts and methods of reasoning discussed in the course?
Have you given adequate evidence for your argument or interpretation?
Does your introduction make clear where the rest of the paper is headed?
Is each section in the right place to fulfil your purpose?

23. Common errors
1. FaultyAgreement
▪ a. Subjects and verbs must agree in number
▪ b. Nouns and pronouns must agree in number
▪ c. Pronouns must agree with each other
2. Sentence Fragments: A sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated to look like a
sentence, but doesn’t fulfil the requirements of a complete sentence. (subject-predicate)
3. Run-on [fused] Sentences: A sentence should express only one central idea:
4. Faulty Parallelism
5.Vague Pronouns: Make sure that pronouns such as “it” and “this” refer to something specific
6.Mixed or Dead Metaphors
7. Incorrect Comparison
8. use a dictionary to check words whose meaning you are not sure of:

24. Punctuation
Commas: Commas after many introductory phrases are optional.When the introductory phrase is
short, you can often omit the comma; when the phrase is longer, a comma will help your reader
recognize where the main clause begins.
Add a comma after an introductory clause
When the introductory phrase includes a participle
Place a comma before the conjunction
Surround interrupting or parenthetical clauses or phrases with commas
Semicolons: The semicolon has two main uses.The first is to combine two closely related
independent clauses into one sentence.The other valid use of semicolons is to separate list
elements that are long or complex.
Colons: they offer a way of urging your reader forward.The words preceding the colon create an
expectation
Dashes: They have the same functions as commas and colons. Dashes are used to set off
interrupting clauses or phrases.

25. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, E.H. (n.d).”Writing about History”. .Toronto.University ofToronto
Press
Freedman,L & Plotnick, J. (n.d). “Introductions and Conclusions”. .Toronto.
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Freedman, L. (n.d) . “Skimming and Scanning”.Toronto.University of
Toronto Press
Knott, D. (n.d). “Critical ReadingTowardsCriticalWriting” .Toronto.
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Knott, D. (n.d) .”Writing an Annotated Bibliography”.Toronto.University of
Toronto Press.
LeBel,S. (n.d).” Writer’s Block”. .Toronto.University ofToronto Press.
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Toronto Press
Plotnick,J. (n.d). “Hit ParadeOf Errors In Grammar, Punctuation, and Style”.
Toronto.University ofToronto Press
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Procter,M &Visvis,V. (n.d). “Paragraphs”.Toronto. University ofToronto
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Procter, M. (n.d). “Taking Notes from Research Reading “.Toronto.
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Procter,M. (n.d). “UsingThesis Statements”.Toronto. University of
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