Islam and The Media: A paper presented to the department of Bayero University Kano, for continuous assessment.

1. INTRODUCTION
The media has a powerful effect on the viewers whereby the individuals
concerned are directly and heavily influenced by the media messages in shaping
public opinion. The exposure of media is a direct effect on knowledge, attitude and
behavior of the viewers and it can happen within a short span of time. The media
which are controlled by the westerners do not report most fact of information,
issues (concerning Islam) the way they appeared or happened, but report news,
happenings in a way to shapen the view, perspective of the audience towards
Islam. The communication theories, explain how media is use to direct the view of
people on issues. Covering Islam appeared that there has been an intent focus on
Muslims and Islam in the American and Western media, most of it characterized
by a more highly exaggerated stereotyping and belligerent hostility. The Islamic
world has grown to prominence, and during crises they are brought out to
pontificate on formulaic ideas about Islam on news programs or talk shows.
MEDIA BIAS
According to Elizabeth Paul in the encyclopedia of race and ethnic studies, the
media as being criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cite a case study
examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004,
which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were under represented and that issues
involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals,
according to Poole, include depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to western
security and values. Then Ben and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and
Muslims are closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as barbaric, irrational,
primitive and sexist. Some media personalities are associated with maintaining

2. Islamophobic perspective. In public discussions and in the media Muslims are
mostly portrayed as a monolithic bloc, a closed and united group of people who are
totally different from or even intimidating and hostile to a likewise close ‘west’
which is Christian, secular, liberal, and democratic. The description of the Muslim
and western worlds are two contrasting, and contradictory poles lead to a dualistic
understanding of relations, disregarding many fine distinctions and exceptions. The
so called risk of Arabs has being hyped throughout by the media channels to an
extent that now westerners see Muslims only in the content of somebody who is an
adversary of the democratic world order and modernization.
THE INTERACTIVITY IN ISLAM AND THE MEDIA
Nowadays, numerous media campaign are going on against Islam and Muslims in
which western media with considerable financial resources and multiple channels
try to show a rough picture of Islam to their public. At the same time Muslim
groups through various media outlets are trying to convey their messages, but in
comparison to the global dominance of the western media, their efforts are
somehow in vain. In this regards you can visit the website of the Islamic
community in creation and many others. Most western media are using the
September 11th event to capitalize at political gain, in which the media depict Islam
as extremism, radicalism. Of course in the western world where the role of media
is central, the image of reality manipulated to misrepresent the actual facts.
The media have tried to represent Muslims as ‘terrorist’ posing a threat to the
western security, by doing so they try to justify the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
In recent years, this approach has led to the emergence of ‘islamophobia’, however
little effort has been made to respond to this negative campaign. On the contrary

3. the fact of terrorist groups who kill people, especially western hostages, help their
media to show that they are collectively the times of terrorism.
The sense of threat to the Muslim cultural identity is enhanced by a predominant
feeling that a secular and powerful west imposes it values upon Muslim world. The
most frequent response imposes it values upon Muslim world, across Muslim
countries for both moderate and political radicals was ‘sexual and cultural
promiscuity’, followed by ethical and moral corruption and ‘hatred of Muslims’.
The media especially western media wonderfully dominate over and over again the
western populace have shown footage of the atrocities committed by fanatics of
Arab men burning American flags. The problem, of course is that this isn’t
representative of the Islamic population of the world, are there Muslims who
employ terrorism? Of course, are there Christians who employ terrorism? Of
course. Some general fact about Islam might help break the nose of wax time
propaganda that rest around America’s neck. Some of the following statements are
always seen on social media.
- All (or) most Muslims are terrorists
- Muslims want sharia law
- They beat their women
- They are store in the Stone Age, and they want to stay there.
- Prophet Mohammed was a pedophile and his wife was only 6-7
- Muslims take child brides and rape children
Through over one billion people in the world subscribe to the faith of Islam, every
time a Muslim individual commit a violent and highly published attack in the west
Americans demand unequivocal apologies and condemnations, they cannot be
bothered, of course with the exact, same terroristic slaughter of non-whites in far-

4. off lands. The media coverage of religion is a bit like covering football from the
point of view of hooliganism and never really watching the game, said Michael
Wakelin, former head of religion and ethics at the BBC, at a fascinating though
occasionally depressing day of discussion held in London recently on Islam and its
treatment in British Broadcasting and Newspapers after years of conflict in
Afghanistan and the Middle East.
It is truly ironic that the Christian extremists in the west do something bad; they
are called a “lunatic fringe” of the Christians faith. But when an Islamic extremist
does likewise, Islam is termed lunatic and not the extremist. Today Islam is
portrayed by the popular western media as a triple threat to the west-political,
civilizational and demographic. For example, despite Iran’s dismal failure in
exporting its revolution abroad, it is still viewed as a global threat.
There is a dominant perception amongst Muslims that the media does indeed
portray them and their religion in an inaccurate and derogatory manner. Effectively
then, what the public understand about Muslims in general and British Muslims in
particular is understood to deeply related to “British Muslim representation” not
only in the media but also in the whole social systems of the west.
For example, in the U.S.A today, grade school history text books, comic strips,
TV series, films and cartoons show only caricatures of Muslims as oil suppliers,
terrorists or as blood thirsty mobs.
THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION THAT ARE RELEVANT IN THE STUDY
OF THE NATURE OF INTERACTIVITY IN THE ISLAM AND MEDIA
Definition of a theory:

5. Kerlinger (1973) has given a comprehensive and celebrated definition of theory.
He says a theory is a set of inter-related construct, definitions and propositions that
give a systematic view about phenomena” by specifying relations among variables
with the purpose of explaining and predicting such phenomena.
According to Severin and Tankard (1982), a theory “is a set of ideas of systematic
generalizations based on scientific observation (and) leading to further empirical
observation”. This means that we can make predictions about the outcome of
certain events. It also means that when talking of predicting outcomes, audience
effect research of mass communication works hard to predict what kind of effect
certain kinds of communication would have on some or all kinds of people. In this
scientific definition, verifiability and reliability readily serve as guards against
fraud and bias. Clearly communication theory is a “set of ideas, which provides an
explanation for communication phenomena” (Daramola, 2003).
HOW WE ARRIVE AT THEORIES
We arrive at theories, through the scientific method. To arrive at a theory, you take
the following steps:
Conceptualize operationalization, observation, analysis, testing, generalization,
theory.
Conceptualization: you may start with a ‘hunch’ followed by a conceptual
definition of the subject of inquiry, a topic.
Operationalization: here, the general concept is translated into specific variables or
indicators. The study procedure is specified. In survey research terms, it involves a
progression from a statement of the study problem, through hypotheses research

6. questions formulation, to the generation of questionnaire items or interview
questions.
Observation: After specifying the variables, you start observation of those
variables from the data available. You will choose any of the available models of
observation questionnaire method, personal observation, interviewing people,
experimentation, or looking into records in this process.
Analysis: This represents the process of extracting meaning from the facts
observed.
Testing: The hypotheses or research questions undergo testing, using the result of
our analysis.
Generalization: From the results of our findings, generalizations are made
regarding the subject of inquiry.
Theory: From the systematic generalizations, we can arrive at a theory.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
A theory has the following characteristics
- Systematic generalization: Theory is predicated basically on scientific
observation.
- Intellectual Rigour: It can stand obvious intellectual rigour, it should be
testable, verifiable, and systematic.
- Dynamism: New facts can lead to modification or repudiation of existing
theories.
- Datedness: Theories help us to make predictions but such predictions are
scarcely ever realized with exactitude only approximate realizations.

7. - Economy: With only a few exceptions, a good theory accounts for many
cases with a few statements.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORIES
A theory has basic functions that it performs. These are:
- Theories help in describing, predicting and explaining a phenomenon.
- Theories help to link facts together. Without theories, facts will stand
isolated and fragmented.
Mass communication theories are explanations and predictions of social
phenomena that attempt to relate mass communication to various aspects of our
personal and cultural lives or social system (Baran 2002). The major
communication theories that are relevant in the study of nature of interactivity
in the Islam and the media includes, framing theory, social cognitive theory of
mass communication, priming theory, cultivation theory, agenda setting theory,
hypodermic needle theory(framing).
FRAMING THEORY
Framing: The concept of framing is related to agenda setting tradition but
expand the research by focusing on the essence of the issue at hand rather than
on a particular topic. The basis of framing theory is that the media focuses
attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. The
media draws the public attention to certain topics, it deceives what people think
about the journalist select the topics, this is the original agenda setting
‘thought’, in news this occurs more than only bringing up certain topic, the way
the news is also presented is also a choice by journalist. Thus, a frame refers to

8. the way media and media gatekeepers organize and present the event and issues
they cover, and the way audience interprets what they are provided.
Framing is in many ways tied very closely to agenda setting theory, both focus
on how media draws the public eye to specific topics, in this way they set the
addenda, but framing takes this a step further in the way in which the news is
presented creates a frame for that information. This is usually a conscious
choice by journalist, in this case a frame refers to the way media as gatekeepers
organize and present the ideas, events, and topics they cover. Framing is the
way a communication source defines and construct a/any piece of
communicated information, framing is an unavoidable part of human
communication we all bring our own frames to our communication.
Frames are abstract notions that serve to organize or structure social meanings.
Frames influence the perception of the news of the audience, this form of agenda-
setting not only tells what to think about, but also how to think about it. Framing is
a quality of communication that leads others to accept one meaning over another, it
is a skill with profound effect on how organizational members understand and
respond to the world in which they live. Media products are human products,
constructs that the audience takes for granted.
AGENDA SETTING
Agenda setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues
by the news media. This theory is good at explaining why people with similar
media exposure place importance on the same issue at hand, most people feel
the same issue as important, because it predicts that if people are exposed to the
same media, they will place importance to the same issues. Some basis
assumptions underline most research on agenda setting:

9. - The press and the media do not reflect reality, they filter and shape it.
- Media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to
perceive those issues as more important than other issues. One of the most
critical aspects in the concept of an agenda-setting theory seems quite
appropriate to help us understand the pervasive role of the media.
- It has predictive power, because it predict that if people are exposed to the
same media, they will feel the same issues are important.
Media can keep on repeating particular news in order to set the agenda of the
people on a particular issue.
PRIMING THEORY
Priming is a concept through which media effect among the people are
enhanced by providing a basic perception human minds take decision based on
the preconceptions that are already being store in our memory. The memory is
stored as a form of nodes and they are interconnected effectively and mostly act
as a frame of reference to the decisions that we make. Priming enables the
audience to evaluate the situations and to conclude how effective the media
have being in other to make decision by providing a frame of reference. Thus
media creates an influence among people to make judgment or a decision. This
theory was put forward by Iyengar, Peters, and Kender in 1982 and labeled it as
the priming effect. Priming is an important concept in media effects, as agenda
setting brings out only the importance of the issue, priming offers explanation
on how the information from the media are stored in the human mind and how
it influence in making decisions. Media affect the judgment or behavior by
stimulating the associating thought which is cause due to the mental
relationships created inside the memory.

10. Priming is use to evaluate the media effect among the people, as it is in media
centered world, the studies regarding the media effect are vital. Researches are
implemented applying the priming concept to understand the impact of TV
programs and violent behaviors among the viewers. The media easily influence
children and their behavior can be base on the contents shown in the television.
For e.g. a child tend to enact the qualities of their favourite character in movies
and tend to display their characteristics.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (SCT)
Social cognitive theory used in psychological, education, and communication,
holds that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly
related to observing others within the context of social interactions,
experiences, and outside media influences. The theory states that when people
observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior,
they remember the sequence of event and use this information to guide
consequent behavior.Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage
in behavior they already learned. In other words people don’t learn new
behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather the
survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others.
Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and
the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior
modeled. Media provides model for a vast array of people in many different
environmental setting.
Social cognitive theory is a learning theory base on the idea that people learn
by observing others. This learned behavior can be central to one’s personality,
while social psychologist agree that the environment one grows up in contribute

11. to individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important. People learn
by observing others, with the environment, behavior and cognition all as the
chief factors in influencing development in a reciprocal triadic relationship. For
e.g each behavior witnessed can change a person’s way of thinking (cognition).
Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors, just
as a father’s mindset (cognition) determines the environment in which his
children are raised.
The core concept of this theory can be explained by Bandura’s schematization
of triadic reciprocal causation in his book chapter, the schema shows how the
reproduction of an observed behavior is influenced by the interaction of the
following three determinants:
1. Personal: Whether the individual has high or low or low self-efficacy toward
the behavior (i.e. gets the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to
correctly complete a behavior).
2. Behavioral: The response an individual receives after they perform a
behavior (i.e. provide chance for the learner to experience successful
learning as a result of performing behavior correctly).
3. Environmental: Aspects of the environment or setting that influence the
individual ability to successfully complete a behavior (i.e. make
environmental condition conducive for improve self-efficacy by providing
appropriate support and materials).
CULTIVATION THEORY
Cultivation theory is a theory composed originally by G. Gerbner ,it states that
high frequency viewers of television are more susceptible to media messages and
the believe that they are real and valid. Heavy viewers are exposed to more

12. violence and therefore are affected by the mean world syndrome, they believe that
world is a far worse and dangerous place then it actually is. Cultivation research is
one that studies media effects (in my opinion one of the most controversial media
research). Cultivation theories posit that television viewing can have long time
effect that gradually affects the audience. Their primary focus fall on the effects of
viewing in the attitude of the viewer as opposed to create behavior.
The theory suggest that this cultivation of attitude is based on attitudes already
present in our society and that the media take those attitude which are already
present and represent them bundled in a different packaging to their audiences.
One of the main tenets of the theory is that television and media cultivate the status
quo, they do not challenge it. Many times the viewers is unaware the extent to
which they absorb media, many times viewing themselves as moderate viewers
when, in fact they are heavy viewers. The theory suggests that television and media
possess a small but significant influence on the attitude and beliefs about society.
Those who absorb more media are those we are more influenced.
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
Propounded by Elihu Katz, Jay Blumler and Guvevitch, 1974.
1 The audience is conceived as active. This idea focuses around the assumption
that the viewers are goal-oriented and attempt to achieve their goals through the
media source.
2 In the mass communication process, much initiative in linking need gratification
and media choice lies with the audience member, This is encompassing the idea
that people use the media to their advantage more often than the media use them.
The receiver determines what is going to be absorbed and does not allow the media
to influence them otherwise.

13. 3 Many of the goals media use can be derived from that supplied by the individual
audience members themselves. This idea claims that people are very aware of their
motives and choices and are able to explain them verbally, if necessary.
The uses and gratification theory is the optimist’s view of the media. The theory
takes out the possibility that the media can have an unconscious influence over our
lives and how we view the world. The idea that we simply use the media to satisfy
a given need does not seem to fully recognize the power of the media in today’s
society.
SPIRAL OF SILENCE
Propounded by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, 1973 later reviewed in 1980 by the
same propounder.
1 A person’s perception of the distribution of public opinion influences his
willingness to express opinions.
2 People feel an increasing pressure to conceal their view and opinions when they
believe they are in the minority.
3 An individual’s perception of the opinions of others is critical factor in
determining their willingness to express these opinions.
The spiral of silence theory is applicable in situations when trying to explain why
people cover up or change the opinions when in a group setting, especially when
they think they are alone in the opinion . The driving force of the theory is public
opinion, individual receive information about public opinion from two source,
personal observation and the media. This is why public behavior is affected by
public opinion assessment.

14. Most media have good views, perception about Islam, but if they express their
view, they can be seen as aliens, deviance, so they might just keep quiet and not
express their view.
Despite the audience conceived as active and influence the effect that that the mass
media have on them they still depend on the mass media for information and most
of this information, set the agenda of the people.
METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the methodology of this study. According to Wimmer and
Dominick (1994), methodology is the way will be collected and analyzed. It is the
method through which one undertakes one’s research or study. Therefore, this
study is motivated by four factors.
- To examine the methods adopted in presenting the contents of the message.
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis is a method for summarizing any form of content by counting
various aspects of the content. This enables a more objective evaluation than
comparing content based on the impressions of a listener.
Walizer and Wiener (1978) define it as any systematic procedure devised to
examine the content of recorded information.
According to Kerlinger (2000) content analysis is a method of studying and
analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner for
the purpose of measuring variables.

15. Krippendorf (1980) defines it as a research technique for making replicable and
valid references from data to their content.
CONCLUSION
Most of the information that is spread via media about Islam are mostly
misunderstood concept, like in the case of ‘Jihad’, the media report ‘jihad’ as war
which in its Islamic concept, it means ‘to strive’ ‘to struggle’. The media only
serves to plan ideas in people against Islam that somehow the United States and the
rest of the world must save the Muslims from themselves. The goal of such
propaganda is to make non-Muslims believe that Muslims are lesson people in the
universe. Media is seen as the tool broadly used in terminating the images of the
Muslims, Muslim women, the hijabs, the Qur’an, the sharia etc. Most theories are
designed to enable individuals see how the media stereotype and broadcast news
about the Muslims, mostly in a bias, improper, manner, rather the media are use in
favour of the west.
FINDINGS
In the findings of this research, the researcher found out that media misunderstood
some concept regarding Islam and report news to their understanding.
Communication theories describe the way media portray Islam, set the agenda,
view, perception , reactions of the people and how the people perceive the
information they get. Reporting news on Islam is quite different from the ways
news is reported about other issues. Most Islamic news carry captivating,
exaggerated headlines that will direct the view of the audience which might lead to
the audience having a particular perception, view or a cause of action to a segment
of people towards Islam. The media sometimes don’treport good works, actions of

16. the Muslims but never fail in reporting every mistake, bad moves of the Muslim
over and over again.
REFERENCE
ab Ahmed, Fauzia (August 2006). “British Muslims Perception and Opinions on
News Coverage of September 11”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 32 (6)
: 961-982. Doi: 10.1080/13691830600761479.
Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE
Publications, 1995

17. Casmir, Fred L. Building Communication Theories New Jersey: Erlbaum
Associates, 1994.
Chandler, D. (1995). Lecture notes: Cultivation theory.
DeFleur, Melvin L. Theories of Mass Communication New York: Longman Inc.,
1989
Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic studies, p. 218
Fairhurst, G.& Sarr, R.1996.The art of Framing.san Francisco:jossey-Bass.
Gerbner,G. & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The Violence
German, Lindsey (Feb 11, 2015) “Blame the Muslims: islamophobia is fuelled by
government and media”. Middle East Eye.
Goffman, Erving.1974.Frame Analysis: An essay on the Organization of
Experience. New York, NY et al. :Harper &Row.
http://www.ihrc.org.uk/show.php?id=2493
McCombs, M.E,& Shaw, D.L., & Weaver, D.L (1997). Communication and
Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory.
Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Miller, K. (2005) . Communications theories: perspectives, processes, and context.
New Yorks: Mc Graw-Hill.
Mehdi Hasan (9 July 2009).Know your enemy. New statesman. Retrieved 2010-
04-09.

18. Phillip seib and Dana m.Janbek (2011) Global Terrorism and New Media: The
Post – Al Qaeda genaratiion.
Routledge: 270 Madison Avenue, New York.
Salah Al-sawy (2002) “Americans Questions About Islam : post September 11”
Umm Al- Qira publishing CO. Al-Mansura, Egypt.
Steve Rendall and Isabel Macdonald, Making Islamophobia Mainstream; How
Muslims-bashers broadcast their bigotry, summary of Fairness and Accuracy
Reporting report, at its website, November/Decenbert 2008.
Shaw, D.L. & McCombs, M. 91977). The Agenda-Setting Function of the Press.
St. Paul: west.