Climate resilient and environmentally sound agriculture - Module 4

CLIMATE-RESILIENT AND
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND AGRICULTURE
OR “CLIMATE-SMART” AGRICULTURE
Information package for government
authorities

Introduction to the information package
The future of humankind and the planet relies on human activities becoming more
efficient, the food chain being no exception. This online information package was
written with the idea of providing an overview of the challenges that the agriculture
sector—and to a certain extent the food production chain—faces to feed the world
while becoming more efficient. It also explores ways to address these challenges.
Through simplified concepts and relevant resources and examples, we explore the
impacts of global change on agriculture, the impacts of agriculture on ecosystems
and possible technical and policy considerations that can help building food security
under current and future challenges.
The technical and policy considerations explored are meant to contribute towards
climate-resilient and environmentally sound or “climate-smart” agriculture—
agriculture that increases productivity; enhances resilience to global change; stops
ecosystem services deterioration; and produces economic and social benefits.
The information presented here comes from findings, experience and ideas from all
over the world, as we believe there are already elements to catalyse change. We
also believe this change has to come largely from local communities, for which
reason, wherever possible, we provide examples at local levels.
See how to use the information package.

PART I
AGRICULTURE, FOOD SECURITY AND ECOSYSTEMS: CURRENT
AND FUTURE CHALLENGES
PART II
ADDRESSING CHALLENGES
PACKAGE CONTENT

MODULE 4
AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
HEALTH

Module objectives and structure
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Objectives and structure
Objectives
This module explores the impacts of agriculture on natural resources, human health and
ecosystems. We put an emphasis on the deterioration of land productivity, but also highlight
how this affects ecosystem services, which also have a bearing on land productivity.
Structure
Given that many factors contribute to the deterioration of land productivity, the module opens
with a general introduction on land degradation, after which different processes that contribute
to it are briefly covered. The first half of the module presents processes that mainly lead to
depletion of land quality, while the second half discusses land degradation due to excesses, in
particular pollution, a form of chemical degradation that not only affects production, but also
impairs ecosystems and affect human health. We finish by looking at the effects of improper
agriculture management on ecosystem services.
Caveat
Land degradation processes often do not act individually and affect more than one land
component. Specific examples are presented for each major process, often related to impacts
on a single land component, but they cannot be taken in isolation.

Degradation of agricultural land
• Land degradation impairs the capacity of land to perform ecosystem services
and results in loss of productivity, socio-economic problems, food insecurity and
migration
• It costs about US$40 billion annually worldwide, without including hidden costs
Land degradation is the reduction in the capacity of the land to
perform ecosystem services (including those of agro-ecosystems
and urban systems) that support society and development. It
includes damage or change to soils, water bodies, vegetation cover
and fauna (micro/macro level) through different processes:
• Physical—crusting, compaction, erosion, waterlogging,
depletion of groundwater, etc.
• Chemical—acidification, leaching, salinization, pollution, etc.
• Biological—changes in biodiversity, eutrophication, etc.
Land degradation costs about US$40 billion annually worldwide,
without considering hidden costs of increased fertilizer use, loss of
biodiversity and unique ecosystems. Degraded land is costly to
reclaim and, if severely degraded, may no longer be of use.
Ploughing degraded land in
Senegal.
Photo: FAO/Seyllou Diallo.
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Introduction to land degradation

Drivers of agricultural land degradation
• Growing demand for food has led to intensification of farming and therefore
increased use of fertilizer, pesticide and machinery
• Over-use of inputs is not only wasteful but also damages agricultural products, as
well as the environment
A growing demand for food leads to intensification of farming, which
if not done through sound practices, may lead to land degradation.
In addition to intensification, other factors can contribute to land
degradation, including:
• Fragmentation of land and differences in management;
• Lack of knowledge on environmentally sound technologies;
• Reduction of extension services;
• Natural disasters;
• Lack of incentives to practice environmentally sound agriculture.
Over-use of inputs and lack of appropriate land management
practices is not only wasteful but also damages agricultural
products, as well as the environment and human health. The
following slides cover the main types of land degradation.
Driving Force - Pressure - State -
Impact - Response (DPSIR)
Framework. More…
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Introduction to land degradation
Responses
Driving
forces
Impacts
Direct
pressures
State

Land degradation: depleting
processes
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Land degradation

Soil erosion
• Soil erosion is one of the most widespread forms of land degradation
• For the farmer soil erosion reduces crop yields and implies more costs for
producing food and fibre
Erosion is the washing or blowing away of surface soil. It is one of
the most widespread forms of degradation.
When soil vegetation cover is disturbed by cultivation, grazing,
burning, or use of heavy machinery, soil becomes vulnerable to
erosion. Erosion accelerates when sloping land is ploughed; grass
is removed from semiarid land; cattle, sheep and goats are allowed
to overgraze; and hillside forests are cut.
Cropland is at the highest risk of erosion, especially if farming
systems leave the land bare exposed to wind and water.
For the farmer, soil erosion reduces crop yields and increases the
costs of growing food and fibre by reducing the capacity of the soil
to hold water and make that water available to plants; washing away
plant nutrients and degrading soil structure; reducing water
infiltration; and modifying the terrain. See more…
Soil erosion in sloping agricultural
land in Tunisia.
Photo: Photolibrary on soil erosion
processes.

Soil erosion
Examples
Soil erosion in China
The China Integrated Science survey for soil
erosion and ecological security determined
that in 2008 China had 3.6 million km2 of
eroded soil.
The survey found that almost every valley in
every province had soil erosion, with 646
counties experiencing serious soil erosion, of
these, 225 were in the Yellow River Basin, 71
in the Hai River basin, 24 in the Huai River
Basin. The provinces with more problems were
Sichuan, Shanxi, Gansu, Inner Mongolia and
Shaanxi.
According to Chinese experts, by 2000 the
economic loss from soil erosion was at least
CNY200 billion, equivalent to 2.25% of their
national GDP.
A section of the Yellow River in China. Each year 1.5
billion tonnes of soil flows into the Yellow River.
Sometimes there is so much sediment in the river it
looks like chocolate milk. Three quarters of this silt
ends up in the Yellow Sea, with the remainder settling
on the river bed, causing the level of the river to rise.
Source: Facts and details, Yellow River Basin.
Photo: China Digital Times.

Loss of soil structure: soil compaction
• Soil compaction is another serious environmental problem with consequences for
agricultural production
• Soil compaction increases the risk of crop failure, especially under reduced water
supply, and increases farming costs
Soil structure degradation—often called soil compaction—is another
serious environmental problem caused by conventional agriculture.
The immediate consequences of soil compaction are decreased
water and fertilizer efficiency and increased soil erosion.
Soil compaction increases the risk of crop failure under reduced
water supply and it increases farming costs—it is more expensive to
operate when soil is compacted.
Compaction is a subsurface phenomenon that requires soil
excavation in order to view and describe it. The two most common
visible forms of soil compaction are massiveness (soil aggregates
are compressed into large and dense blocks) and platiness (the soil
forms plate-like structures, horizontal to the soil surface).
See FAO brochure on soil compaction and the Queensland
Government website.
Example of a compacted soil.
Photo: Photolibrary on soil erosion
processes.

Loss of soil structure: soil compaction
Examples
Soil compaction in Europe
An estimated area of 33 Mha in
Europe is affected by land
degradation caused by soil
compaction.
In the Netherlands, soil compaction is
the most widespread kind of physical
soil degradation. Due to continuously
increasing wheel loads in agriculture,
soil compaction is extending to the
subsoil, i.e. the soil below the till layer,
including the plough layer.
Soil compaction deserves special
attention since it is a persistent
phenomenon which is hardly
alleviated by natural processes.
The natural
susceptibility of
European soils to
compaction.
Source: Joint
Research Centre, Soil
compaction website.

Waterlogging
• Waterlogging is the rise of the water table into the soil root zone and is
considered severe if the water table is found at less than 30 cm depth
• It results primarily from inadequate drainage and over-irrigation and is closely
linked to salinization
Waterlogging is the rise of the water table into the soil root zone,
where the plant growth is adversely affected by deficiency of
oxygen. The critical depth depends on the kind of crop, but
waterlogging is commonly defined as light if the water table is at a
depth of 3 m for substantial parts of the year, moderate if it is at less
than 1.5 m and severe if the water table occurs at less than 30 cm
depth.
Waterlogging should be distinguished from naturally occurring
poorly drained areas, and also from inundation or flooding.
Waterlogging results primarily from inadequate drainage and over-
irrigation and, to a lesser extent, from seepage from canals and
ditches. Waterlogging concentrates salts (drawn up from lower
down in the soil profile) in the plant rooting zone, and it is, therefore,
closely linked to salinization. See more…
Waterlogging causes yellowing of
leaves, stunted growth, small
roots and poor nodulation in
lupins.
Source: Managing waterlogging
and inundation in crops.

Waterlogging
Examples
Waterlogging in India
Irrigated agriculture, responsible for
transforming India from a food deficient to a
food surplus country, is under stress due to
waterlogging and soil salinization, which have
serious socio-economic and environmental
implications.
The Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
(CSSRI) reports waterlogging and soil salinity
increased at an average rate of 3,000 ha per
year between 1991 and 2007 in the
Tungabhadra command, while a 42%
increase was observed in southwest Punjab
over a 4-year period (1997–2001).
Source: Agricultural Land Drainage
Reclamation of Waterlogged Saline Lands.
Men building a check dam for irrigation in India.
Photo: FAO/Joerg Boethling.

Salinization
• Salinization of agricultural land by irrigation costs about US$11 billion per year
worldwide
• It reduces crop yields and when it is severe, crops stop growing and ultimately
land needs to be taken out of production
The accumulation of salts from improper soil and water management
is a serious problem worldwide. The global cost of irrigation-induced
salinity is estimated to be US$11 billion per year.
Primary salinization occurs naturally in areas where rocks are rich in
soluble salts, in the presence of a shallow saline groundwater table,
where rainfall is insufficient to leach soluble salts from the soil, or
where drainage is restricted.
Secondary salinization occurs when significant amounts of water are
provided by irrigation with no adequate provision of drainage for the
leaching and removal of salts.
Salt-affected soils reduce both the ability of crops to take up water
and the availability of micronutrients. Salts can also be toxic to plants.
Salinity can also be considered a form of pollution.
The reclamation of salt-affected land is costly and often difficult.
.
.
Salt-affected soil.
Source: Management of
irrigation-induced salt-affected
soils.

Salinization
Examples
Salinization in Iran
Based on a recent estimate, 34 Mha or
nearly 20% of Iran’s surface area is salt-
affected. This includes 25.5 Mha of
slightly to moderately affected and
8.5 Mha of severely salt-affected soils.
Salt-affected soils are mainly distributed
in the central plateau, southern coastal
plain, Khuzestan plain and inter-mountain
valleys. The salinization of land and water
resources have resulted from both
naturally-occurring phenomena and
anthropogenic activities, but secondary
salinization has been the main cause of
the spread of salinity.
Source: Advances in the assessment of
salinization and status of biosaline
agriculture.
Increase in groundwater salinity in Yazd-Ardakan sub-basin in
central Iran.
Source: An overview of the salinity problem in Iran-
Assessment and monitoring technology in Advances in the
assessment of salinization and status of biosaline agriculture.

Environmental impact of livestock
• Livestock is the world’s largest user of land resources
• Grazing land occupies 26% of the earth’s ice‐free land surface
• Rapid expansion has caused overgrazing and land degradation
The livestock sector has expanded rapidly in recent decades and demand
for meat and dairy products continues to grow. A predicted increase of 68%
by 2030 compared with 2000 is being mainly driven by population and
income growth in developing countries (FAO, 2006).
Livestock is the world’s largest user of land resources, with grazing land
occupying 26% of the earth’s ice‐free land surface, and 33% of cropland
dedicated to the production of feed (FAO, 2009).
The rapid expansion of the sector is a cause of overgrazing and land
degradation and an important driver of deforestation. It is also responsible
for CH4 and N2O emissions from ruminant digestion and manure
management, and is the largest global source of CH4 emissions. However,
the carbon footprint of livestock varies considerably among production
systems, regions, and commodities, mainly due to variations in the quality
of feed and the feed conversion efficiencies of different animal species
(FAO, 2010a). More…
Goats and cattle at a
watering hole in Shinile
Zone, Ethiopia.
Photo: FAO/Giulio
Napolitano.

Depletion of soil productivity
Reflections
All the processes mentioned in the preceding pages contribute to the depletion of soil fertility and
therefore productivity by reducing organic matter content; affecting soil structure and other physical
and biological characteristics; reducing nutrient availability, the capacity of systems to circulate
nutrients; and ultimately result in soil quality and productivity decline.
Soil productivity decline is a deterioration of chemical, physical and biological soil properties. It is
more common in extensive and low input systems with inappropriate management practices.
Which of the previously described processes are present in agriculture in your area?
How do they affect productivity? Have farmers noticed changes in yields?
Can specific causes of degradation be identified? Which are the most important? Physical,
chemical, biological?
Which economic and social drivers can be associated with these processes?
How much does land quality depletion cost in your area?
Are farmers and extension services aware of the rate of degradation? What type of awareness
campaigns would be useful in your area? Simple methods of evaluation of land quality can be
found in the Visual Soil Assessment (VSA) field guides (See the full text here).

The other side of the coin: land
degradation from excesses—
agricultural pollution
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Agricultural pollution

Agricultural pollution
• Agriculture pollution comes from different activities, it is difficult to control and
can cause serious problems to farmers, ecosystems and consumers
Agricultural pollution comes mainly from:
• Excessive application of chemical fertilizers
• Over use and improper storage of pesticides and inappropriate
disposal of obsolete pesticides
• Over use of plastic sheeting and inappropriate disposal
• Excessive or inappropriate application of livestock and poultry
manure (also emit GHGs).
• The use of wastewater containing chemical and biological
contaminants
• Burning of agricultural residues (also emits GHGs)
Pollution from agriculture is difficult to monitor and control and it can
cause serious problems to farmers, ecosystems and consumers.
Discarded pesticide cans in
Yeliman, Mali.
Photo: FAO/Ivo Balderi.

Pollution from plant nutrients
• Growing demand for food leads to intensification of farming and therefore
increased use of fertilizer
• Over-use of fertilizer is not only wasteful but also damages agricultural products,
human health and the environment
Agriculture intensification has resulted in an excessive use of
mineral fertilizers, in particular those containing nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P). Storage of manure in open fields without protection
from rain, direct discharge of manure overflow water to a stream, or
leaking manure lagoons can also pollute water bodies.
When large amounts of N (as nitrate) and P (as phosphate) enter in
water bodies from runoff, percolation or seepage from farmland,
they can produce contamination of drinking water, algal or plankton
blooms, eutrophication, reduction of oxygen in water (hypoxia) and
mortality of fish and molluscs. Excess of nitrates in livestock
systems can also affect land and its potential for production.
Excess nitrates are also absorbed by vegetables. Nitrate is
converted in the human body into compounds that are harmful to
health, especially for children.
A farmer applies fertilizer to his
rice field.
Photo: CAAS.

Pollution from plant nutrients
Examples
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the over-enrichment of
water by nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus. Phosphorous is mostly
responsible for eutrophication of fresh
water while nitrogen for that of salt water.
The two most acute symptoms of
eutrophication are harmful algal blooms
and hypoxia (oxygen depletion), which
can destroy aquatic life and cause
ecological and economic damage.
The rise in eutrophic and hypoxic events
(415 sites have been identified worldwide)
has been attributed to agricultural
intensification, industrial activities, and
population growth. These have doubled N
and tripled P flows to the environment
compared with natural values.
World hypoxic and
eutrophic coastal areas.
Source: WRI and
NutrientNet
programme.
The eutrophication
process.
Source: Pew Trusts
and World
Resources Institute
(WRI).

Pollution from pesticides
• Pesticides are important for maintaining crop yields but their over-use is not only
wasteful but may also contaminate agricultural produce and harm other species
as well as humans
The term pesticide includes all chemicals that are used to kill or
control pests. About a thousand active ingredients are used to
manufacture the wide array of pesticides available all over world
(herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematocides, rodenticides,
acaricides, molluscides, aphicides, etc.).
Although there are benefits in applying pesticides, incorrect use is
now threatening the long-term survival of ecosystems by disrupting
predator-prey relationships, encouraging more pests to develop,
causing loss of biodiversity, impairing ecosystem services like
pollination and increasing pest resistance to specific pesticides.
Pesticides also affect human health, especially if they are not
handled and disposed of safely in agricultural operations, or if they
are consumed through food containing pesticide residues. See
more…
Spraying a rice field with
powdered pesticide.
Photo: FAO/Florita Botts.

Pollution from pesticides
Examples
Pesticides in the Rotterdam Convention
and the Stockholm Conventions
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Infor-
med Consent Procedure for certain hazar-
dous Chemicals and Pesticides in
International Trade (PIC) and the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs) are multilateral treaties. The
Rotterdam Convention tries to promote
shared responsibilities in relation to
importation of hazardous chemicals, while the
Stockholm Convention aims to eliminate or
restrict the production and use of persistent
organic pollutants.
The majority of chemicals of concern to these
Conventions are pesticides (see PIC’s Annex
III and listed POPs).
Persistent Organic Pollutants in Food (animation, click
on the image).
Aldrin and dieldrin
(two of the listed
pesticides).
Source: FAO Photo
Galleries, Prevention
and disposal of
obsolete pesticides.

Pollution from animal manure
• In many intensive animal production systems the production of manure exceeds
demand
• If not managed properly manure can contribute to pollution by affecting the
quality of water, soils, air and the health of ecosystems and humans
Since the large scale production of synthetic fertilizers, animal
manure is less used for plant nutrition but in some places it is not
applied efficiently and in many intensive animal systems production
of manure exceeds demand. Manure mismanagement may affect:
• Quality of water bodies (from runoff and leaching of nitrate
(NO3) and P into water bodies);
• Air quality (through emissions of ammonia (NH3));
• Soil quality (acidification, accumulation of Cu and Zn);
• Human health (biological contamination, respiratory problems
and toxicity from heavy metals).
Manure mismanagement also is an important source of
greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. See more…
Methane released from animal
manure may total 18 Mt per year.
Source: Livestock’s long shadow,
FAO.

Pollution from animal manure
Examples
Large scale poultry production in
the USA, environmental concerns
The PEW Environment group report
Big Chicken: pollution and industrial
poultry production in America
suggests that the waste produced
by concentrated poultry operations
in the USA raises serious concerns.
Poultry operations in Maryland and
Delaware alone generate approx. 42
million ft3 of chicken waste annually,
which due to the combination of
industrial-level production and the
diminishing amount of cropland in
these two states has resulted in
some of the waste (and its nutrients)
reaching the Chesapeake Bay.
A pond near a chicken operation in Maryland Eastern shore is covered
with algae, a problem in many areas due to the excess of nutrients.
Source: The PEW environment group’s report Big Chicken: pollution
and industrial poultry production in America.

Pollution from potentially toxic elements
• High levels of potentially toxic elements like arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
copper, lead, mercury and zinc can be toxic to plants, animals and are damaging
to human health—these can be transferred along the food chain and are
bioaccumulated
Soil pollution from potentially toxic elements (PTEs) is of particular
concern. Many PTEs are essential for animal and plant growth, but
at high concentrations or long term exposure they become toxic.
They can be transferred from soils to crops and water and,
ultimately, affect human health (Hang et al., 2009).
Many soils naturally contain PTEs, but in some areas human inputs,
like excessive use of agrochemicals, use of contaminated
manures, sewage sludge or wastewater and leaching or deposition
from industrial or mining activities, have increased their
concentrations.
High levels of PTEs in soils can be toxic to plants and livestock or
bioaccumulate in the food chain. The most common PTEs of
concern in agriculture are arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium
(Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and zinc (Zn).
The Drax power station in the
UK. Coal fired power stations
release PTEs such as arsenic, lead
and mercury. Nearby fields can
accumulate contaminants.
Photo: Kaskus news.

Pollution from potentially toxic elements
Examples
Urban agriculture and food safety
Urban and peri-urban agriculture is an important
contribution to food security in cities. However,
researchers have found that urban soils often contain high
concentrations of PTEs, including Cd, Pb and Zn.
In Kampala, where three quarters of Ugandan vehicles
circulate, food is grown along roadsides. A recent study at
11 agricultural sites around the city showed that in those
with heaviest traffic flows, PTE concentrations in soils
exceeded accepted safe limits. In addition, leafy
vegetables grown near the road at all sites exhibited
dangerously high concentrations of lead. Some of the
contamination was in the form of a surface film, which
could be washed off, but most of the contaminants were
found in the leaf tissue.
Source: The New Agriculturalist.
See also: African Urban Harvest.
Urban agriculture along the roadside in
Kampala, Uganda (not part of the
mentioned study).
Photos: E. and S. Ritchie.

Pollution from burning of plant biomass
• Burning of crop residues causes air pollution and results in losses of nutrients
• It also results in deterioration of soil physical properties and adversely affects
beneficial soil micro-flora and fauna
Burning of crop residues causes air pollution and results in
losses of nutrients. It also adversely affects the beneficial soil
micro-flora and fauna (CIMMYT).
It is estimated that humans are responsible for about 90% of
biomass burning, mainly through the deliberate burning of forest
vegetation as well as of pastures and crop residues to promote
re-growth and destroy pest habitats.
Air pollution in the form of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
ammonia, and particulate matter in the atmosphere affects the
local environment and contributes to global climate change.
Burning residues also leads to a substantial waste of precious
nutrient resources (especially nitrogen) and organic matter in the
soil (FAO).
Burning of residues causes losses of
nutrients and organic matter, and
contributes to the air pollution and
climate change.
Photo: CIMMYT.

Pollution from burning of plant biomass
Examples
It is reported that 40–80% of the nitrogen (N) in
wheat crop residue is lost as ammonia when it is
burned in the field. Although residue burning can
have a beneficial effect on the N supply to
subsequent crops in the short-term, it has negative
long-term effects on overall N supply and soil
carbon levels.
The ash left on the soil surface after burning crop
residues causes an increase in urease activity and
may cause N losses from soil and applied fertilizer.
Crop residue, being an organic material, if left on
the soil, leads to an improvement in soil structure
and fertility, whereas burning residues leads to a
corresponding loss in soil fertility. Methods which
retain crop residue, such as Conservation
Agriculture (CA), protect the soil and improve the
growing environment. More…
Soya planted into wheat straw without removing
the previous crop residue (permanent soil cover).
Photo: J. Benites.

Pollution from plastic films
• Plastic films are used to help retain moisture and prevent weeds but they have
become widely dispersed in the environment
• They may contain harmful substances
Plastic film is used widely in agriculture as silo bunker covers, silage
bags, bale wrap, greenhouse covers, silage covers, row covers, and
mulch film, as well as for packaging. In recent years, the use of
agricultural plastic film has increased (CWMI).
Plastic film is not easily recyclable or biodegradable. Residues can
be transported by wind over long distances. They can affect soil
quality, crop growth and even the quality of agricultural produce.
One ingredient of plastics, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like
compound, which may leech into water posing a health threat
(WHO).
Research indicates that small beads, formed by weathering of
plastics adsorb and concentrate polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
and pesticides, which may be ingested by fish and thus enter the
food chain (USEPA).
Planting groundnut under plastic
sheeting in Shaanxi Province,
China. While effective for soil and
water conservation, pollution
from agricultural plastic has
become a serious problem in
China.
Photo: FAO/Florita Botts.

Contaminated water and food safety
• Inappropriate agricultural practices can have severe impacts on health, which in
turn puts an unnecessary strain on public resources, as funding needs to be
allocated to medical treatment
The health impacts of contamination arising from agricultural practices
include:
• Contamination of water supplies by pesticides and fertilizers (FAO).
• Microbiological contamination of food crops from the use of water
contaminated by human wastes or from runoff from grazing areas
and stockyards. The most common diseases associated with
contamination are cholera, typhoid, ascariasis, amoebiasis,
giardiasis, and Escherichia coli infections.
• Contamination of food crops with toxic chemicals, like pesticides
and potentially toxic elements.
• Potential for hormonal disruption (endocrine disruptors) derived from
additives in animal and fish production.
See also Food safety along the food chain.
A woman drawing water from
a well situated a few metres
from a deposit containing
deteriorating cans of
pesticides in Govani, Mali.
Photo: FAO/Ivo Balderi.

Contaminated water and food safety
Examples
In rural and peri-urban areas of most developing countries, the use
of sewage and wastewater for irrigation is a common practice.
Wastewater is often the only source of water for irrigation in these
areas. Even in areas where other water sources exist, farmers
often prefer wastewater because its high nutrient content reduces
or even eliminates the need for expensive chemical fertilizers.
Concern for human health and the environment are the most
important constraints in the reuse of wastewater. While the risks do
need to be carefully considered, the importance of this practice for
the livelihoods of countless smallholders must also be taken into
account.
This means, for example, finding affordable ways of monitoring the
presence of harmful contaminants in wastewater, such as heavy
metals, and looking at farming practices and crops grown to find
ways of minimizing risks of infection for farmers and consumers
Source: Reuse of wastewater for agriculture.
See also: Safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater.
Treated sewage water mixed with
underground water for irrigation.
Photo: FAO/Rosetta Messori.

Greenhouse gas emissions
• Agriculture contributes directly to about 13.5% of global GHG emissions, through
different activities
• These activities can be improved and, therefore, emissions reduced
Agriculture directly emits GHGs in the form of:
• CH4 emissions from livestock: ruminants (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats,
camels) emit CH4 as a by-product of their digestive processes.
• Losses of N2O from plant nutrient application: while losses of N2O to
the atmosphere occur naturally as a result of the soil nitrogen cycle,
the application of any form of nitrogen to amend soil can increase the
rate of emissions, especially if applied in excess or carelessly.
• CH4 emissions from rice cultivation: produced under anaerobic
conditions in rice paddies.
• N2O and CH4 emissions from manure management: from biological
breakdown of organic compounds and nitrification and denitrification
of nitrogen contained in manure.
• CO2 from crop residue management (also N2O, CH4) and fuel use.
Share of different sectors
in global GHG emissions.
Source: adapted from
IPCC.

Greenhouse gas emissions
Examples
Methane emissions occur as part of the natural digestive
process of livestock (enteric fermentation) and manure
management, rice cultivation, agricultural soil management
and field burning of agricultural residues. See more…
Nitrous oxide emissions are associated with manure
management and the application and deposition of manure
and fertilizer use for crop production. See more…
Carbon dioxide emissions are related to fossil fuel burning
during production of fertilizer, the livestock production
process, processing and transportation of refrigerated
products, as well as crop residue burning.
Furthermore, livestock are a major driver of the global trends
in land-use and land-use change, including deforestation
(conversion of forest to pasture and cropland),
desertification, as well as the release of carbon from
cultivated soils.
See more…
Livestock are a significant contributor
to global greenhouse gas emissions.
Photo: FAO/Alberto Conti.

Status of land in your area
Reflections
Land degradation can also occur from the excessive use of inputs or inappropriate
management practices. The degradation of water, soil and ecosystems through pollution is of
great concern, as it is more difficult to reverse than in the case of soil fertility depletion.
The conservation of resources through a balanced use of inputs and efficient practices should
become a priority to be able to continue benefiting from ecosystem services and having
resources to meet demands for food, feed and fodder.
A start towards better resource management is to have an idea of the current status of land
(including soil, water and biota). Examples of assessments can be found in the website of the
Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) project, which has developed
methodologies for local and national assessments.
Is agricultural pollution a concern in your area? If so, how bad is it?
Are soil tests done in your area to determine the amount of nutrients needed for specific crops?
What about manure management? Could practices be contributing to pollution or emission of
GHG? Are farmers aware of the consequence of improper use of inputs?
Could there be any health concerns related to pollution caused by agriculture?
Are you aware of the safe practices for handling, storing and disposing of pesticides?
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Status of land in your area

Agriculture and ecosystem services
Reflections
As mentioned in module 1, ecosystem services are under pressure from human activities.
Agriculture can either contribute to the enhancement of these services or cause them to
deteriorate through any of the processes described in this module. These processes can
affect the following ecosystems services (these are only a few examples):
• Provisioning services: by affecting water availability an its quality for other uses; missing
the benefits of plant species for medicinal purposes if they disappear (as a result of mono-
cropping or use of a limited number of species or varieties).
• Regulating services: by interfering with carbon cycles through deforestation, burning of
residues and loss of organic matter by soil erosion; promoting the proliferation of pests and
diseases due to mono-cropping; interfering with pollination and soil organisms functions
due to the excessive use of pesticides; reducing the capacity of ecosystems to cope with
droughts.
• Supporting services: Interfering with nutrient dispersal and cycling through excessive
release of nitrogen and phosphate (causing eutrophication and hypoxia); reducing
biological diversity through the use of only a few species in cultivation.
• Cultural services: by changing landscapes, e.g. deforestation, erosion.
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health: Agricultural and ecosystem services
The good news is that all these can be avoided by recognising the threats and using more
efficient and sound practices. How are agricultural practices affecting ecosystem services in
your area?

Resources
Module 4. Agriculture and ecosystems health: Resources
References used in this module and further reading
This list contains the references used in this module. You can access the full text of some of
these references through this information package or through their respective websites, by
clicking on references, hyperlinks or images. In the case of material for which we cannot
include the full text due to special copyrights, we provide a link to its abstract in the Internet.
Institutions dealing with the issues covered in the module
In this list you will find resources to identify national and international institutions that might hold
information on the topics covered through out this information package.
Glossary, abbreviations and acronyms
In this glossary you can find the most common terms as used in the context of climate change.
In addition the FAOTERM portal contains agricultural terms in different languages. Acronyms of
institutions and abbreviations used throughout the package are included here.

Module 4. Agriculture and ecosystems health
Please select one of the following to continue:
Part I - Agriculture, food security and ecosystems: current and future challenges
Module 1. An introduction to current and future challenges
Module 2. Climate variability and climate change
Module 3. Impacts of climate change on agro-ecosystems and food production
Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health
Part II - Addressing challenges
Module 5. C-RESAP/climate-smart agriculture: technical considerations and
examples of production systems
Module 6. C-RESAP/climate-smart agriculture: supporting tools and policies
About the information package:
How to use
Credits
Contact us
How to cite the information package
C. Licona Manzur and Rhodri P. Thomas (2011). Climate resilient and environmentally sound agriculture
or “climate-smart” agriculture: An information package for government authorities. Institute of Agricultural
Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.

Climate resilient and environmentally sound agriculture - Module 4

Climate resilient and environmentally sound agriculture - Module 4

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