Portfolio eulixabeth gomez 2007

LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS
Created by: Eulixabeth GomezCreated by: Eulixabeth Gomez

WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?
LinguisticsLinguistics is theis the scientific studyscientific study of theof the
naturenature andand characteristicscharacteristics ofof humanhuman
languageslanguages..

Linguistic StudiesLinguistic Studies
LinguistsLinguists areare interestedinterested in understanding thein understanding the
propertiesproperties common tocommon to allall humanhuman languageslanguages
through the study ofthrough the study of linguistic structurelinguistic structure::
 MorphologyMorphology
 SyntaxSyntax
PhoneticsPhonetics
 PhonologyPhonology
 SemanticsSemantics
PragmaticsPragmatics

Other Linguistic StudiesOther Linguistic Studies
In addition,In addition, linguistslinguists explore many specificexplore many specific
aspects ofaspects of individual languagesindividual languages,, languagelanguage
groupsgroups, and, and language useslanguage uses. Linguists. Linguists
investigateinvestigate similaritiessimilarities andand differencesdifferences
between languages,between languages, howhow children andchildren and
adultsadults learn languageslearn languages, and how we value, and how we value
and judge theand judge the speechspeech andand languagelanguage
usageusage ofof othersothers..

Linguistic and OtherLinguistic and Other DisciplinesDisciplines
LinguisticsLinguistics belongs to the core of cognitivebelongs to the core of cognitive
science, and is closely allied with manyscience, and is closely allied with many
otherother disciplinesdisciplines such assuch as anthropologyanthropology,,
psychologypsychology,, sociologysociology,, communicationcommunication,,
speech therapyspeech therapy,, educationeducation,, computercomputer
sciencescience,, philosophyphilosophy,, EnglishEnglish, and, and foreignforeign

Linguistic AppliesLinguistic Applies
BasicBasic knowledgeknowledge gained in linguistic study isgained in linguistic study is
applied toapplied to improveimprove thethe understanding ofunderstanding of
languagelanguage,, language uselanguage use, and, and languagelanguage
learninglearning. In both theory and applications,. In both theory and applications,
linguisticslinguistics can becan be viewedviewed as theas the mostmost
scientificscientific of theof the humanitieshumanities and theand the mostmost
humanistichumanistic of theof the sciencessciences..

What is a Language?What is a Language?
AA languagelanguage isis consideredconsidered to be ato be a systemsystem ofof
communicatingcommunicating with otherwith other peoplepeople usingusing
soundssounds,, symbolssymbols andand wordswords in expressingin expressing
a meaning,a meaning, ideaidea oror thoughtthought. This. This languagelanguage
can be used in many forms, primarilycan be used in many forms, primarily
throughthrough oraloral andand writtenwritten communicationscommunications
as well asas well as using expressionsusing expressions throughthrough bodybody
languagelanguage..

Classification of LanguagesClassification of Languages
Indo-EuropeanIndo-European family offamily of
languageslanguages
Italic (Latin)Italic (Latin)
o RomanceRomance
 CatalanCatalan
 FrenchFrench
 ItalianItalian
 Occitan (Provençal)Occitan (Provençal)
 PortuguesePortuguese
 Rhaeto-RomanschRhaeto-Romansch
 RomanianRomanian
 SpanishSpanish
GermanicGermanic
o North GermanicNorth Germanic
 DanishDanish
 FaroeseFaroese
 IcelandicIcelandic
 NorwegianNorwegian
 SwedishSwedish
o East GermanicEast Germanic
 Gothic (extinct)Gothic (extinct)

o West GermanicWest Germanic
 AfrikaansAfrikaans
 DutchDutch
 EnglishEnglish
 FlemishFlemish
 FrisianFrisian
 GermanGerman
 YiddishYiddish
SlavicSlavic
o WesternWestern
 CzechCzech
 PolishPolish
 SlovakSlovak
 SorbianSorbian
 EasternEastern
 BelarusianBelarusian
 RussianRussian
 UkrainianUkrainian

o SouthernSouthern
 BulgarianBulgarian
 CroatianCroatian
 MacedonianMacedonian
 Old Church SlavonicOld Church Slavonic
 SerbianSerbian
 SloveneSlovene
BalticBaltic
 LatvianLatvian
 LithuanianLithuanian
 Old Prussian (extinctOld Prussian (extinct))
CelticCeltic
o BrythonicBrythonic
 BretonBreton
 Cornish (extinct)Cornish (extinct)
 Gaulish (extinct)Gaulish (extinct)
 WelshWelsh
o GoidelicGoidelic
 IrishIrish
 Manx Gaelic (extinct)Manx Gaelic (extinct)
 Scots GaelicScots Gaelic
Hellenic (Greek)Hellenic (Greek)
AlbanianAlbanian
ArmenianArmenian

Most Spoken LanguagesMost Spoken Languages
of the Worldof the World
1)1) MandarinMandarin 10511051
((Millions of Speakers)Millions of Speakers)
2)2) EnglishEnglish 510510
3)3) HindiHindi 490490
4)4) SpanishSpanish 425425
5)5) ArabicArabic 255255
6)6) RussianRussian 254254
7)7) PortuguesePortuguese 218218
8)8) BengaliBengali 215215
9)9) Malay, IndonesianMalay, Indonesian
175175
10)10)FrenchFrench 130130
11)11)JapaneseJapanese 127127
12)12)GermanGerman 123123
13)13)Farsi (Persian)Farsi (Persian) 110110
14)14)UrduUrdu 104104
15)15)PunjabiPunjabi 103103
16)16)VietnameseVietnamese 8686

Design features of languageDesign features of language
 Arbitrariness
 Use of the vocal-auditory channel
 Semanticity
 Cultural transmission
 Spontaneous usage
 Turn-taking
 Duality
 Structure-dependence
 Displacement
 Creativity

Design features of languageDesign features of language
If we look atIf we look at animalanimal ""languageslanguages" we can see that" we can see that
some forms ofsome forms of animal communicationanimal communication possesspossess
some of the above features e.g. birds singingsome of the above features e.g. birds singing
duets can be said to be "duets can be said to be "turn-takingturn-taking" and bees" and bees
who dance in order to show other bees wherewho dance in order to show other bees where
food is display displacement, butfood is display displacement, but nono animalanimal
system other than human language has allsystem other than human language has all tenten
featuresfeatures, and at least one is unique only to, and at least one is unique only to
humans. However, when looking at studies thathumans. However, when looking at studies that
are designed to teach chimps a version ofare designed to teach chimps a version of humanhuman
languagelanguage, it is useful to, it is useful to bearbear these ten features inthese ten features in
mind when determining howmind when determining how successfulsuccessful suchsuch
attemptsattempts ultimately were.ultimately were.

MorphologyMorphology Comes fromComes from GreekGreek
morphosmorphos (=(=shapeshape oror formform).). IsIs thethe
fieldfield withinwithin linguistics that studies
the internal structure of words:
 The study of forms of language, especially the
different forms used in declensions,
conjugations, and word-building.
 Can be thought of as aCan be thought of as a systemsystem of adjustmentsof adjustments
in thein the shapes of wordsshapes of words that contribute tothat contribute to
adjustments in theadjustments in the wayway speakersspeakers intend theirintend their
utterancesutterances to beto be interpretedinterpreted..

WordsWords
AA soundsound or aor a combinationcombination ofof soundssounds,,
or its representation inor its representation in writingwriting oror
printingprinting, that, that symbolizessymbolizes andand
communicates acommunicates a meaningmeaning and mayand may
consist of aconsist of a singlesingle morphememorpheme or ofor of
aa combinationcombination ofof morphemesmorphemes..

Type of WordsType of Words
Function words or grammaticalFunction words or grammatical
wordswords::
Are words that haveAre words that have littlelittle lexicallexical meaningmeaning oror
havehave ambiguousambiguous meaningmeaning, but instead, but instead
serve to expressserve to express grammaticalgrammatical
relationshipsrelationships withwith other wordsother words withinwithin aa
sentencesentence..

Function words are:Function words are:
 PronounsPronouns:: he, they, anybody, it, onehe, they, anybody, it, one
 DeterminersDeterminers:: the, a, that, my, more,the, a, that, my, more,
much, either,much, either,
 PrepositionsPrepositions:: of, at, in, without, betweenof, at, in, without, between
neitherneither
 ConjunctionsConjunctions:: and, that, when, while,and, that, when, while,
although, oralthough, or
 Auxiliary verbsAuxiliary verbs:: be (is, am, are), have,be (is, am, are), have,
got, dogot, do
 ParticlesParticles:: no, not, nor, asno, not, nor, as

Function WordsFunction Words are sometimes calledare sometimes called
closed classclosed class words, because It iswords, because It is difficultdifficult
to think ofto think of newnew conjunctionsconjunctions,, prepositionsprepositions,,
oror pronounspronouns that have recentlythat have recently enteredentered thethe
languagelanguage..

 Content wordsContent words
AreAre wordswords that have a estatablethat have a estatable lexicallexical
meaningmeaning, they, they provide meaningprovide meaning to theto the
language andlanguage and changechange oftenoften. (For example,. (For example,
most English-speaking people employmost English-speaking people employ
more or less themore or less the same prepositionssame prepositions andand
pronounspronouns as theiras their great-grandparentsgreat-grandparents, but, but
different and probablydifferent and probably moremore nounsnouns andand
verbsverbs.).)

Content WordsContent Words are sometimes called theare sometimes called the
open classopen class words because we canwords because we can
regularlyregularly dodo addadd new wordsnew words to theseto these
classesclasses..
Example:Example: the verb “the verb “downloaddownload”” and nounsand nouns
like “like “bytebyte” and “” and “emailemail”,”, enteredentered languagelanguage
quitequite recentlyrecently with thewith the Internet revolutionInternet revolution..

Content words are:Content words are:
 NounsNouns:: John, room, answerJohn, room, answer
 AdjectivesAdjectives:: happy, new, large, greyhappy, new, large, grey
 VerbsVerbs:: search, grow, hold, havesearch, grow, hold, have
 AdverbsAdverbs:: really, completely, very,really, completely, very,
also, enoughalso, enough

MorphemesMorphemes
TheThe smallest unitsmallest unit ofof meaningmeaning. Any. Any wordword oror
part of a word thatpart of a word that conveysconveys meaning andmeaning and
cannotcannot be furtherbe further divideddivided intointo smallersmaller
meaningfulmeaningful elementselements. This. This combination ofcombination of
soundssounds that have athat have a meaningmeaning, does, does notnot
necessarily have to be anecessarily have to be a wordword..

ExampleExample::
TheThe wordword catscats hashas twotwo
morphemesmorphemes.. CatCat isis aa morphememorpheme,,
andand ss isis anotheranother morphememorpheme..

Characteristics of a MorphemeCharacteristics of a Morpheme
Morphemes must not be confused withMorphemes must not be confused with
syllablessyllables:: Many words have two or moreMany words have two or more
syllables but onlysyllables but only oneone morphememorpheme
Example:Example: BananaBanana,, apple, papaya, etc.apple, papaya, etc.
Many words have two morphemes andMany words have two morphemes and
only one syllableonly one syllable::
Example:Example: catcatss, run, runss,, barkbarkeded and so on.and so on.

One or more morphemes may appear inOne or more morphemes may appear in
the same wordthe same word::
ExampleExample: dog: dogss, read, readerer, speak-, speak-erer--ss
One and the same morpheme mayOne and the same morpheme may
appear in different shapesappear in different shapes: As it appears: As it appears
in different words, a single morpheme mayin different words, a single morpheme may
be pronounced in different waysbe pronounced in different ways

ExampleExample::
 TheThe plural morphemesplural morphemes --ss, -, - eses,, such as:such as:
CatCatss,, doordoorss,, boxboxeses,, dishdisheses,, buzzbuzzeses,, etc.etc.
 TheThe morphemesmorphemes that function as thethat function as the
indefinite formsindefinite forms::
a, an (a, an ( aa man,man, anan orange)orange)

Types of MorphemesTypes of Morphemes
FreeFree MorphemesMorphemes:: AA morphememorpheme thatthat cancan
stand alonestand alone as aas a wordword withoutwithout anotheranother
morphememorpheme, which, which make sensemake sense. It does. It does notnot
needneed anythinganything attachedattached to it to make ato it to make a
wordword..
Example:Example: CatCat,, Tree, faith, care, dress,Tree, faith, care, dress,
man,man, areare free morphemesfree morphemes..

Types of MorphemesTypes of Morphemes
 Bound MorphemesBound Morphemes:: AA soundsound or aor a
combination ofcombination of soundssounds thatthat cannotcannot standstand
alonealone as aas a wordword andand cancan onlyonly occuroccur inin
combinationcombination withwith otherother morphemesmorphemes..
Example:Example: KindKindnessness,, ununlikely, talklikely, talkeded,,
walkwalkss,, are some bound morphemes.are some bound morphemes.
Affixation:Affixation: is the morphological processis the morphological process
whereby an affix is attached to a root orwhereby an affix is attached to a root or
stem.stem.

Type ofType of BoundBound Morphemes:Morphemes:
Affixes:Affixes: AreAre bound morphemesbound morphemes which arewhich are
attachedattached to ato a basebase. They need to be part of a. They need to be part of a
complex word to make sense.complex word to make sense.
Affixes can be:Affixes can be:
 PrefixPrefix:: AnAn affixaffix that isthat is attachedattached beforebefore otherother
morphemes.morphemes.
ExamplesExamples::
aasymmetrical,symmetrical, subsubordinate,ordinate, unungrateful,grateful,
ununnecessary,necessary, emempower,power, ininsufficientsufficient

 SuffixSuffix:: AnAn affixaffix thatthat comescomes afterafter otherother
morphemes.morphemes.
Examples:Examples:
cowardcowardiceice, good, goodnessness
fruitfruitfulful, swimm, swimminging,, childchildishish
 InfixInfix:: Is anIs an affixaffix insertedinserted insideinside anotheranother
morpheme in themorpheme in the formationformation of aof a wordword ..

Examples:Examples: InfixesInfixes in thein the world's languagesworld's languages are inare in
thethe AustricAustric group, which is a hypotheticalgroup, which is a hypothetical
superfamily centred aroundsuperfamily centred around South-East AsiaSouth-East Asia,,
including both theincluding both the Mon-KhmerMon-Khmer languages (suchlanguages (such
asas KhmerKhmer oror CambodianCambodian) and the Austronesian) and the Austronesian
languages (such aslanguages (such as IndonesianIndonesian and those of theand those of the
PhilippinesPhilippines andand PolynesiaPolynesia).).
InIn KhmerKhmer, “, “charoencharoen”” means 'means 'causingcausing
prosperityprosperity''
And “chaAnd “chammroen”roen” means 'means 'to prosperto prosper'.'.

 CircumfixCircumfix:: Is anIs an affixaffix that is placedthat is placed aroundaround
another morpheme.another morpheme.
Examples:Examples:
Probably most widelyProbably most widely known circumfixesknown circumfixes are:are:
GermanGerman past participle (past participle (ge- -tge- -t for regularfor regular
verbs)verbs)
spielenspielen -- gegespielspieltt
DutchDutch has a similarhas a similar systemsystem::
spelenspelen -- gegespeelspeeldd

Word- FormationWord- Formation
 Base or RootBase or Root:: Is anIs an elementelement in which anin which an
affixaffix isis addedadded. This. This morphememorpheme gives agives a
wordword itsits meaningmeaning..
Example:Example: In languages that haveIn languages that have
circumfixes, thecircumfixes, the rootroot is the form aroundis the form around
which thewhich the circumfixcircumfix attachesattaches..
TagalogTagalog sulatsulat inin ssumumulatulat
StemsStems:: When aWhen a rootroot morpheme ismorpheme is
combinedcombined with anwith an affixaffix, It forms a, It forms a stemstem,,
which may or not be a word (which may or not be a word (painterpainter isis
bothboth aa wordword and aand a stemstem).).

Word- FormationWord- Formation
Examples:Examples: rootroot:: singsing
stemstem:: singsingerer
wordword:: singerssingers
root:root: believebelieve
stem:stem: believebelieveableable
word:word: unbelieveableunbelieveable
As one adds each affix to a root, a new stem and aAs one adds each affix to a root, a new stem and a
new word are formed.new word are formed.

AffixesAffixes differ fromdiffer from rootsroots in 3 ways:in 3 ways:
 They doThey do notnot formform wordswords by themselvesby themselves
they have to bethey have to be addedadded on to aon to a rootroot..
 TheirTheir meaningmeaning, often, is, often, is lessless clearclear than thethan the
meaning of roots, and many affixes havemeaning of roots, and many affixes have
no meaningno meaning beyondbeyond theirtheir grammaticalgrammatical
functionfunction..
 ComparedCompared with thewith the total numbertotal number ofof rootsroots,,
which is verywhich is very largelarge ((tens of thousandstens of thousands),),
the number of affixes is verythe number of affixes is very smallsmall ((a fewa few
hundreds at mosthundreds at most).).

Other Types of Word-FormationOther Types of Word-Formation
 AcronymsAcronyms::
AA wordword formed byformed by combiningcombining thethe initial lettersinitial letters of aof a
series of relatedseries of related wordswords..
Examples:Examples:
FAQ= FFAQ= Frequentlyrequently AAskedsked QQuestionsuestions
RADAR= RRADAR= Radioadio DDetectingetecting AAndnd RRanginganging
NASANASA== NNationalational AAeronautics anderonautics and SSpacepace AAgencygency
VIP= VVIP= Veryery IImportantmportant PPersonerson
AIDSAIDS==AAcquiredcquired IImmunemmune DDeficiencyeficiency SSyndromeyndrome

ClippingClipping::
Is theIs the wordword formation processformation process which consists inwhich consists in
thethe reductionreduction of a word to one of its parts.of a word to one of its parts.
Examples:Examples:
docdoc = doctor= doctor
examexam = examination= examination
gasgas = gasoline= gasoline
gymgym = gymnasium= gymnasium
mathmath =mathematics=mathematics
memomemo = memorandum= memorandum

Back- FormationsBack- Formations::
TheThe creationcreation by analogy of aby analogy of a new wordnew word fromfrom
anan existing wordexisting word on the false assumptionon the false assumption
that the existing word is a derivative of thethat the existing word is a derivative of the
new word.new word.
Example:Example:
the verbthe verb “to edit”“to edit” from the nounfrom the noun “editor”“editor”
'to administrate''to administrate' from 'from 'administration’administration’
'to burgle''to burgle' fromfrom 'burglar’'burglar’

BlendsBlends::
Is aIs a wordword formedformed from parts offrom parts of twotwo other wordsother words..
These parts areThese parts are sometimessometimes, but not always,, but not always,
morphemesmorphemes..
Example:.Example:.
brunchbrunch is a blend ofis a blend of brbreakfasteakfast andand llunchunch..
cyborgcyborg is a blend ofis a blend of cybcyberneticernetic andand orgorganismanism..
CalifornicationCalifornication, is a blend of, is a blend of CaliCaliforniafornia andand
fornifornicationcation..

 CoinageCoinage::
InventionInvention ofof new wordsnew words fromfrom scratchscratch. These. These
are trade marks actually.are trade marks actually.
Example:Example:
Selpak, Xerox, nylon, asprin, teflon, gilette,Selpak, Xerox, nylon, asprin, teflon, gilette,
pampers, hamburger, etc.pampers, hamburger, etc.

Compound WordsCompound Words::
WhenWhen twotwo oror more wordsmore words joinedjoined togethertogether toto
form aform a new wordnew word..
Examples:Examples:
 Home + workHome + work  homeworkhomework
 Pick + pocketPick + pocket  pickpocketpickpocket
Note:Note: The meaning of a compound is notThe meaning of a compound is not
always the sum of the meanings of its partsalways the sum of the meanings of its parts..

Other examples of Compounds:Other examples of Compounds:
noun + nounnoun + noun
 homeworkhomework
 BoyfriendBoyfriend
• MailmanMailman
• sunflowersunflower
verb + verbverb + verb
 sleepwalksleepwalk
 breakdancebreakdance
adjective + adjectiveadjective + adjective
 icy-coldicy-cold
 red-hotred-hot

CategoriesCategories of Free Morphemesof Free Morphemes
Free morphemesFree morphemes fall intofall into twotwo categoriescategories ::
 Lexical morphemesLexical morphemes::
Consist of theConsist of the wordswords carrying thecarrying the contentcontent ofof
the message.the message.
Examples:Examples:
Boy, Man, House, Tiger, Yellow, Look,Boy, Man, House, Tiger, Yellow, Look,
Break, etc.Break, etc.

 Functional morphemesFunctional morphemes::
Consist of theConsist of the functionalfunctional words in thewords in the
language such aslanguage such as conjunctionsconjunctions,,
prepositionsprepositions,, articlesarticles andand pronounspronouns..
Examples:Examples:
and, but, on, near, above, in, the, that, etc.and, but, on, near, above, in, the, that, etc.

FREE MORPHEMES
Lexical Functional
And, But, On, Near,
In, The, That, ect
Man, Tiger, House
Yellow, Look, etc

CategoriesCategories of Bound Morphemesof Bound Morphemes
Bound morphemesBound morphemes can also be divided into twocan also be divided into two
categories:categories:
Derivational morphemes:Derivational morphemes: Is aIs a processprocess byby
whichwhich affixesaffixes combinecombine withwith rootsroots to create newto create new
words of awords of a differentdifferent grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory..
Examples:Examples:
nationnation ((nn.) + al (.) + al (adjadj.).) -->--> nationalnational + ize (makes+ ize (makes
aa verbverb)) nationalizenationalize + ation+ ation -->-->
nationalizationnationalization (back to a(back to a nounnoun))

Other examples of DerivationalOther examples of Derivational
morphemes:morphemes:
The addition of the derivational morpheme 'The addition of the derivational morpheme '--
nessness' to the' to the adjectiveadjective ''goodgood' results in the' results in the
nounnoun ''goodnessgoodness'.'.
 New words are formed from the base:New words are formed from the base:
((verbverb) speak) speak -->--> un-un-speakspeak-able (-able (adverbadverb))
((nounnoun) conscious) conscious -->--> sub-sub-consciousconscious-ly-ly
((noun with a new meaningnoun with a new meaning))
((verbverb) use) use -->--> un-un-useuse-ful (-ful (adjectiveadjective))

Derivational morphology in complexDerivational morphology in complex
wordswords
PrefixPrefix BaseBase SuffixSuffix ComplexComplex
WordWord
BiBi cycl(e)cycl(e) inging BicyclingBicycling
DisDis gracegrace fulful DisgracefulDisgraceful
InIn tolera(te)tolera(te) ableable IntolerableIntolerable
ReRe visionvision istist RevisionistRevisionist
UnUn likely (ylikely (y
becomesbecomes ii))
hoodhood UnlikelihoodUnlikelihood

Inflectional MorphemesInflectional Morphemes: Is the bound: Is the bound
morpheme used to indicate the grammaticalmorpheme used to indicate the grammatical
function of a word.function of a word. Does NOT change theDoes NOT change the
part of speech class for the word.part of speech class for the word.
Example:Example:
 bigbig,, bigg-erbigg-er,, bigg-estbigg-est areare all adjectivesall adjectives..
 Adding the inflectional morpheme 'Adding the inflectional morpheme '-ed-ed' to' to
''jumpjump' results in the' results in the past tensepast tense ''jumpedjumped‘‘
 Adding the inflectional morpheme 'Adding the inflectional morpheme '-s-s' to '' to 'boyboy''
makes themakes the pluralplural ''boysboys'.'.

Inflectional MorphemesInflectional Morphemes
EnglishEnglish has onlyhas only eight inflectionaleight inflectional
morphemesmorphemes:: --ss ((pluralplural) and) and --ss
((possessivepossessive) are) are noun inflectionsnoun inflections;; --ss
(( 3rd-person singular3rd-person singular),), --eded (( past tensepast tense),),
--enen ((past participlepast participle), and), and -i-ingng (( presentpresent
participleparticiple) are) are verb inflectionsverb inflections;; --erer
((comparativecomparative) and) and --estest ((superlativesuperlative) are) are
adjectiveadjective andand adverb inflectionsadverb inflections..

Compare: Inflection and derivationCompare: Inflection and derivation
LexicalLexical
categorycategory
DoDo notnot change thechange the
lexical category of thelexical category of the
word.word.
ChangeChange thethe
lexicallexical
category of thecategory of the
wordword
LocationLocation Tend to occur outsideTend to occur outside
derivational affixes.derivational affixes.
Tend to occurTend to occur
nextnext to theto the rootroot
Type ofType of
meaningmeaning
ContributeContribute
syntacticallysyntactically
conditionedconditioned
informationinformation, such as, such as
numbernumber,, gendergender, or, or
aspect.aspect.
ContributeContribute
lexical meaninglexical meaning

BOUND MORPHEMES
Derivational Inflectional
Jumped , Boys
Coldest, etc.
Goodness,unkempt
Clearness , etc

MORPHEMES
FREE BOUND
LEXICAL DERIVATIONALFUNCTIONAL INFLECTIONAL

SyntaxSyntax comescomes fromfrom Ancient GreekAncient Greek συν-συν-
synsyn--, that means “, that means “togethertogether”, and τάξις”, and τάξις
táxistáxis, that means “, that means “arrangementarrangement”.”.

SyntaxSyntax is the study ofis the study of sentence structuresentence structure. It. It
attempts toattempts to describedescribe what is grammaticalwhat is grammatical
in term ofin term of rulesrules in a particularin a particular languagelanguage..

Syntax StudiesSyntax Studies
Modern researchModern research inin syntaxsyntax attempts toattempts to
describe the structure of commondescribe the structure of common
languages in terms of suchlanguages in terms of such rulesrules, and, for, and, for
many practitioners, to findmany practitioners, to find general rulesgeneral rules
thatthat applyapply toto allall languageslanguages..
 Every language has itsEvery language has its particular waysparticular ways toto
form correct clauses, phrases and otherform correct clauses, phrases and other
syntactic unitssyntactic units..

Because the users of a language know theBecause the users of a language know the syntacticsyntactic
ordering of the languageordering of the language, they are able to parse an, they are able to parse an
infinite numberinfinite number ofof sentencessentences.. EvenEven if the reader hasif the reader has
nevernever seen the sentences. The readerseen the sentences. The reader cancan parseparse
them because they arethem because they are properlyproperly formed sentencesformed sentences..
ExamplesExamples::
Jack sat.Jack sat.
The cat sat.The cat sat.
The cat in the hat sat.The cat in the hat sat.
The cat sat in the chair.The cat sat in the chair.
The cat in the hat sat in the chair.The cat in the hat sat in the chair.

Syntax concernsSyntax concerns thethe constructionconstruction ofof
phrases and clauses, for instance, thephrases and clauses, for instance, the
word orderword order which is very important, thewhich is very important, the
agreement between subjects and verbsagreement between subjects and verbs
etc.etc.
Examples:Examples:
 ““The little young red catThe little young red cat”” vsvs “The red little“The red little
young cat” (young cat” (uncorrectuncorrect).).
 ““Joseph gave a rose to EdithJoseph gave a rose to Edith”” vsvs “Edith a“Edith a
rose Joseph gave” (rose Joseph gave” (uncorrectuncorrect).).

So, we must remember thatSo, we must remember that Word OrderWord Order inin
English and other languages such asEnglish and other languages such as
Italian, French, etc areItalian, French, etc are important as itimportant as it
carries meaningcarries meaning. It is the competence (or. It is the competence (or
linguistic knowledgelinguistic knowledge) that helps us to) that helps us to
understand which is theunderstand which is the well-formedwell-formed
sentence and which is thesentence and which is the ill-formedill-formed
sentence.sentence.

A finiteA finite number ofnumber of rulesrules facilitatesfacilitates an infinitean infinite
number ofnumber of sentencessentences that can bethat can be
simultaneously understood bysimultaneously understood by bothboth thethe
speakerspeaker and theand the listenerlistener..
TheThe majoritymajority of native speakers of a languageof native speakers of a language
will havewill have nono formal knowledge of theformal knowledge of the
grammargrammar of a language but areof a language but are stillstill capablecapable
of speaking the language grammatically to aof speaking the language grammatically to a
great degree of accuracy. Native speakers ofgreat degree of accuracy. Native speakers of
a language assimilate thesea language assimilate these rulesrules
subconsciouslysubconsciously whilstwhilst the language is beingthe language is being
learned as a childlearned as a child..

In order for this to work with any degree ofIn order for this to work with any degree of
success, thesuccess, the rules have to be preciserules have to be precise and haveand have
to be consistentlyto be consistently adhered toadhered to. These rules cover. These rules cover
such things as: the way wordssuch things as: the way words are constructedare constructed;;
the way the endings of wordsthe way the endings of words are changedare changed
according to context (according to context (inflectioninflection); the); the
classificationclassification of words intoof words into parts of speechparts of speech
(nouns, verbs, pronouns, etc.); the way parts of(nouns, verbs, pronouns, etc.); the way parts of
speech arespeech are connected togetherconnected together in ain a syntacticsyntactic
categorycategory..

What is a Syntactic category?What is a Syntactic category?
Traditionally calledTraditionally called parts of speechparts of speech. A group. A group
of words which behave similarly; a class ofof words which behave similarly; a class of
words whichwords which share morphologicalshare morphological andand
syntactic propertiessyntactic properties ..
Phrasal categoriesPhrasal categories ((NPNP,, VPVP,, PPPP))
Lexical categoriesLexical categories ((NN,, PP,, ProPro))
Functional categoriesFunctional categories ((AuxAux,, DetDet))

What is a Syntactic category?What is a Syntactic category?
A syntactic category is aA syntactic category is a set of wordsset of words and/orand/or
phrasesphrases inin a languagea language which share awhich share a
significant number ofsignificant number of common characteristicscommon characteristics..
The classification is based onThe classification is based on similarsimilar
structurestructure and sameness ofand sameness of distributiondistribution (the(the
structuralstructural relationshipsrelationships between thesebetween these
elements and other items in a largerelements and other items in a larger
grammatical structure), andgrammatical structure), and notnot onon meaningmeaning..
In generative grammar, a syntactic categoryIn generative grammar, a syntactic category
isis symbolizedsymbolized by a node label in a constituentby a node label in a constituent
structure treestructure tree..

What is a lexical category?What is a lexical category?
A lexical category is aA lexical category is a syntactic categorysyntactic category forfor
elementselements that arethat are part of the lexiconpart of the lexicon of aof a
languagelanguage. These elements are at the word. These elements are at the word
level.level.
Also known asAlso known as::
Grammatical class.Grammatical class.

Kinds of lexical categoriesKinds of lexical categories
There areThere are majormajor andand minorminor lexical categories.lexical categories.
Major categoriesMajor categories:: Every language has atEvery language has at
least two major lexical categories:least two major lexical categories:
 nounnoun
 verbverb
Many languages also have two other majorMany languages also have two other major
categories:categories:
 adjectiveadjective
 adverbadverb

Kinds of lexical categoriesKinds of lexical categories
Minor categoriesMinor categories:: Many languages haveMany languages have
minor lexical categories such as:minor lexical categories such as:
 conjunctionsconjunctions
 particlesparticles

SentencesSentences
The sentence is theThe sentence is the highest-rankinghighest-ranking unitunit ofof
Grammar.Grammar. It is often difficult to decideIt is often difficult to decide
where one sentencewhere one sentence endsends and whereand where
anotheranother beginsbegins. So we should abandon. So we should abandon
neat boundaries by accepting thatneat boundaries by accepting that
''grammargrammar' is a' is a linguistic corelinguistic core where otherwhere other
aspects of linguistic organization andaspects of linguistic organization and
usage areusage are integratedintegrated..

Phrases and ClausesPhrases and Clauses
AA clauseclause is ais a group of wordsgroup of words formed by aformed by a
finite verb andfinite verb and cannotcannot occuroccur alonealone as it isas it is
only part of a sentence. Inonly part of a sentence. In each complexeach complex
sentencesentence we have, at least,we have, at least, two clausestwo clauses::
thethe main clausemain clause which usuallywhich usually
corresponds to a simple sentence and atcorresponds to a simple sentence and at
least oneleast one subordinate or dependentsubordinate or dependent
clauseclause..

Phrases and ClausesPhrases and Clauses
TheThe PhrasePhrase consists of aconsists of a groupgroup ofof wordswords
seen as anseen as an UnitUnit..
There areThere are several typesseveral types ofof phrasesphrases::

Types of phrasesTypes of phrases DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample
PrepositionalPrepositional
phrasesphrases
Begins with aBegins with a
preposition and endspreposition and ends
with a noun orwith a noun or
pronoun.pronoun.
I walkedI walked to the storeto the store..
With a smileWith a smile I told theI told the
joke.joke.
After sunsetAfter sunset is a goodis a good
time to go fishing.time to go fishing.
Noun PhrasesNoun Phrases Is constituted by aIs constituted by a
Noun and Adjectives.Noun and Adjectives.
thethe childrenchildren in class 5in class 5
Verb PhrasesVerb Phrases a verb functions as thea verb functions as the
Head of a verb phraseHead of a verb phrase
playplay the pianothe piano
Adjectival PhrasesAdjectival Phrases adjectives attaching toadjectives attaching to
nouns to modify theirnouns to modify their
meaningmeaning
delighteddelighted to meet youto meet you
Adverbial PhrasesAdverbial Phrases adverbs modifyingadverbs modifying
adjectives, verbs, oradjectives, verbs, or
other adverbs.other adverbs.
veryvery quicklyquickly

Phrase TypePhrase Type AbbreviationAbbreviation
Noun PhraseNoun Phrase NPNP
Verb PhraseVerb Phrase VPVP
Adjective PhraseAdjective Phrase APAP
Adverb PhraseAdverb Phrase AdvPAdvP
Prepositional PhrasePrepositional Phrase PPPP

What is the difference betweenWhat is the difference between
phrases and clauses?phrases and clauses?
The difference between phrases andThe difference between phrases and
clauses can be confusing.clauses can be confusing.
AA phrasephrase is a group of words that has eitheris a group of words that has either
nono subjectsubject or noor no predicatepredicate..
 opening the gateopening the gate (no(no subjectsubject))
 the man at the counterthe man at the counter (no(no predicatepredicate))
 across the riveracross the river (a modifier: neither a(a modifier: neither a
subjectsubject nor anor a predicatepredicate))

AA clauseclause is a group of words containingis a group of words containing bothboth
aa subjectsubject and aand a predicatepredicate..
Dependent ClausesDependent Clauses cannot stand alone ascannot stand alone as
sentences:sentences:
 althoughalthough the manthe man held his daughterheld his daughter
 becausebecause JerryJerry was laughing at the jokewas laughing at the joke
Independent ClausesIndependent Clauses can stand alone as acan stand alone as a
sentence:sentence:
 AlfredAlfred did not want to marrydid not want to marry
 My sisterMy sister,, MarianaMariana,, was talking about ourwas talking about our
mothermother

Word GroupWord Group yes/noyes/no
questionquestion
phrase/indepephrase/indepe
ndentndent
clause/dependclause/depend
ent clauseent clause
walked to thewalked to the
storestore
DidDid walk to thewalk to the
store?store?
PhrasePhrase
Harry walkedHarry walked
to the storeto the store
DidDid Harry walkHarry walk
to the store?to the store?
IndependentIndependent
clauseclause
where Harrywhere Harry
walkedwalked
DidDid wherewhere
Harry walked?Harry walked?
DependentDependent
clauseclause

Rules of SyntaxRules of Syntax
AnAn expositionexposition of orof or set of rulesset of rules for producingfor producing
grammatical structuresgrammatical structures according to theaccording to the
syntaxsyntax of aof a languagelanguage..

Subject, Verb, Object PositioningSubject, Verb, Object Positioning
The standardThe standard orderorder of subject, object, andof subject, object, and
verb in averb in a declarative sentencedeclarative sentence inin ModernModern
EnglishEnglish isis subjectsubject first, followed byfirst, followed by verbverb,,
followed byfollowed by objectobject..
The catThe cat scratchedscratched the dog.the dog.
This standard Modern English word order isThis standard Modern English word order is
often represented asoften represented as SSVVOO (i.e. Subject(i.e. Subject
Verb Object) word order.Verb Object) word order.

The basic relationship between subject (The basic relationship between subject (SS),), verbverb
((VV) and object () and object (OO) in simple declarative) in simple declarative
sentences,sentences, determinedetermine word ordersword orders..
There areThere are sixsix possible orderings:possible orderings: VVSSOO,, SSVVOO,,
SSOOVV,, VVOOSS,, OOVVSS, and, and OOSSVV. It turns out that a. It turns out that a
very large majority of thevery large majority of the world's languagesworld's languages fitfit
within the first three categories; i.e., where thewithin the first three categories; i.e., where the
subject comes before the object.subject comes before the object.

Phrase Structure RulesPhrase Structure Rules
Phrase structure rules specify which
elements can occur in a phrase, and they
also specify in which order these elements
(or constituents) may occur.
Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe
a given language's syntax. They are used
to break a natural language sentence
down into its constituent parts also known
as syntactic categories.

Phrase structure treePhrase structure tree
AA tree diagramtree diagram withwith syntactic categoriessyntactic categories atat
each node that reveals both theeach node that reveals both the linearlinear andand
hierarchicalhierarchical structurestructure ofof phrasesphrases andand
sentencessentences..

Phrase structure treePhrase structure tree

Sentence syntacticallySentence syntactically
AmbiguousAmbiguous
AA wordword,, phrasephrase, or, or sentencesentence isis ambiguousambiguous ifif
it hasit has moremore thanthan oneone meaningmeaning..

Sentence syntacticallySentence syntactically
AmbiguousAmbiguous
ExamplesExamples::
There areThere are twotwo different readings based ondifferent readings based on
the following groupings:the following groupings:
JohnJohn sawsaw MaryMary withwith a telescopea telescope. i.e.,. i.e., MaryMary
has the telescopehas the telescope..
JohnJohn sawsaw MaryMary withwith a telescopea telescope. i.e., John. i.e., John
saw her with the telescope. (saw her with the telescope. (Is John in theIs John in the
habit of looking at girls through ahabit of looking at girls through a
telescopetelescope?).?).

PhoneticsPhonetics ( comes from the( comes from the GreekGreek wordword
φωνή,φωνή, phonephone meaning 'meaning 'soundsound,, voicevoice') is') is
the study of thethe study of the soundssounds ofof human speechhuman speech..

Phonetic StudiesPhonetic Studies
TheThe scientific studyscientific study of theof the soundssounds ofof humanhuman
languagelanguage..
IncludesIncludes threethree main branches:main branches:
Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics
Acoustic PhoneticsAcoustic Phonetics
Auditory PhoneticsAuditory Phonetics

Phonetic StudiesPhonetic Studies
Articulatory Phonetics:Articulatory Phonetics: StudiesStudies howhow
speech soundsspeech sounds areare producedproduced byby brainbrain andand
mouthmouth..
Acoustic Phonetics:Acoustic Phonetics: Is interested in theIs interested in the
study of thestudy of the physicsphysics ofof speech soundspeech sound..
Auditory Phonetics:Auditory Phonetics: Deals with the studyDeals with the study
of how sounds areof how sounds are perceivedperceived by theby the earear
and theand the brainbrain..

The International PhoneticThe International Phonetic
Alphabet (Alphabet (I.P.A.)I.P.A.)
TheThe International Phonetic AlphabetInternational Phonetic Alphabet enablesenables
usus to transcribeto transcribe thethe soundssounds of any humanof any human
language in alanguage in a systematic waysystematic way..
The symbols used in thisThe symbols used in this alphabetalphabet can becan be
used toused to representrepresent allall soundssounds of allof all humanhuman

Type of Speech SoundsType of Speech Sounds
Speech soundsSpeech sounds are divided into:are divided into:
ConsonantsConsonants: Sounds produced by: Sounds produced by somesome
restrictionrestriction of the vocal tract as the air flowsof the vocal tract as the air flows
through the mouth.through the mouth.
VowelsVowels: Sounds produced: Sounds produced withoutwithout
significantsignificant restrictionrestriction of the vocal tract asof the vocal tract as
the air flows through the mouth.the air flows through the mouth.

Consonants
p
pan
/pæn/
b
ban
/bæn/
t
tan
/tæn/
d
day
/deI/
ʧ
chat
/ʧæt/
ʤ
judge
/ʤ^ʤ/
k
key
/kiː/
g
get
/get/
f
fan
/fæn/
v
van /
væn/
θ
thin
/θIn/
ð
than
/ðæn/
s
sip
/sIp/
z
zip /
zIp/
∫
ship
/∫Ip/
ʒ
vision
/vIʒ^n/
m
might
/maIt/
n
night
/naIt/
ŋ
thing
/θIŋ/
h
height
/haIt/
l
light
/laIt/
r
right
/raIt/
w
white
/waIt/
j
yes
/jes/

Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics
To describeTo describe consonantsconsonants, we need to, we need to
specify:specify:
 Place of articulationPlace of articulation
 Manner of articulationManner of articulation
 VoicingVoicing
 Nasal/OralNasal/Oral

Places of articulationPlaces of articulation Manners of ArticulationManners of Articulation
 BilabialsBilabials StopsStops
 LabiodentalsLabiodentals FricativesFricatives
 Inter-dentalsInter-dentals AffricatesAffricates
 AlveolarAlveolar LiquidsLiquids
 PalatalsPalatals GlidesGlides
 VelarsVelars
 GlottalGlottal

Places of Articulation
BilabialBilabial: lips together: lips together
Labio-dentalLabio-dental: lower lip against front teeth: lower lip against front teeth
Inter-dentalInter-dental: tongue between teeth: tongue between teeth
AlveolarAlveolar: tongue near alveolar ridge on roof of: tongue near alveolar ridge on roof of
mouth (in betweenmouth (in between teethteeth andand hard palatehard palate))
PalatalPalatal: tongue on hard palate: tongue on hard palate
VelarVelar: tongue near velum: tongue near velum
GlottalGlottal: space between vocal folds: space between vocal folds

Manners of ArticulationManners of Articulation
StopStop: obstruct airstreams completely: obstruct airstreams completely
FricativeFricative: partial obstruction with friction: partial obstruction with friction
AffricateAffricate: stop airstreams, then release: stop airstreams, then release
LiquidsLiquids: partial obstruction, no friction: partial obstruction, no friction
GlidesGlides: little or no obstruction, must occur with a: little or no obstruction, must occur with a
vowelvowel

VoicingVoicing
VoicedVoiced: Vocal cords are together, the air forces: Vocal cords are together, the air forces
its way through causing vibration.its way through causing vibration.
VoicelessVoiceless: Vocal cords are apart.: Vocal cords are apart.
Nasal/OralNasal/Oral
 OralOral: Air goes through the mouth.: Air goes through the mouth.
NasalNasal: Air goes through the nose.: Air goes through the nose.

Organs of ArticulationOrgans of Articulation

Places of ArticulationPlaces of Articulation

English consonantsEnglish consonants

VowelsVowels
To describeTo describe vowelsvowels, we need to specify:, we need to specify:
 How high is the tongueHow high is the tongue
 What part of tongue is raised or loweredWhat part of tongue is raised or lowered
 LipsLips
Tense/Lax (Long/short)Tense/Lax (Long/short)

VowelsVowels
HeightHeight:: RoundingRounding::
 High vowels RoundedHigh vowels Rounded
 Mid vowels UnroundedMid vowels Unrounded
 Low vowelsLow vowels
Part involvedPart involved:: Tense/laxTense/lax::
 Front vowels Tense (long)Front vowels Tense (long)
 Central vowels Lax (short)Central vowels Lax (short)
 Back vowelsBack vowels

The classification of the main vowels inThe classification of the main vowels in
EnglishEnglish

PhonologyPhonology (comes from(comes from GreekGreek φωνήφωνή (phōnē),(phōnē),
voicevoice,, soundsound ++ λόγοςλόγος (lógos),(lógos), wordword,, speechspeech, is a, is a
subfield ofsubfield of linguisticslinguistics which studies thewhich studies the soundsound
patterns or thepatterns or the system of soundssystem of sounds inin languageslanguages..

Phonology StudiesPhonology Studies
Knowing the sounds of a language is only aKnowing the sounds of a language is only a
smallsmall part ofpart of phonologyphonology. This importance. This importance
is shown by the fact that you canis shown by the fact that you can changechange
oneone wordword intointo anotheranother by simplyby simply changingchanging
oneone soundsound..

Phonology StudiesPhonology Studies
Phonology enables the speaker to:enables the speaker to:
 To produceTo produce sound patternssound patterns that formthat form
meaningful utterances.meaningful utterances.
 To identify aTo identify a foreign accentforeign accent..
 To make upTo make up new wordsnew words..
 To formTo form pluralsplurals andand past tensepast tense through addingthrough adding
thethe rightright sound segments.sound segments.
 To recognize and produceTo recognize and produce aspirationaspiration..
 To knowTo know sound clusterssound clusters..

Phonology DefinitionsPhonology Definitions
 Phoneme:
TheThe simplestsimplest significantsignificant unitunit ofof soundsound..
Sounds that canSounds that can distinguishdistinguish or contrastor contrast
words are phonemes (e.g.,words are phonemes (e.g., ssip/ip/zzip,ip,
fifine/ne/vvine,ine, chchunk/unk/jjunkunk).).
 Phones:
AreAre consideredconsidered to be anyto be any singlesingle speechspeech
sound of whichsound of which phonemesphonemes areare mademade..
Every language consists of speechEvery language consists of speech
sounds calledsounds called phonesphones..

Phonology DefinitionsPhonology Definitions
 Allophones::
These are phones that are different realizations
of the same phoneme. Their occurrence is
rule-governed/predictable.
AllophonesAllophones conditioned variants of aconditioned variants of a phonemephoneme
generated bygenerated by rules of pronunciationrules of pronunciation. In other. In other
words,words, Allophonic rules, tell how a phoneme
is pronounced in particular environments.

AllophonesAllophones
 AllophonesAllophones can becan be predictedpredicted fromfrom theirtheir
phoneticphonetic environmentenvironment
 AllophonesAllophones dodo notnot occur in theoccur in the samesame
environmentenvironment as eachas each otherother (complementary(complementary
distribution)distribution)
 SubstitutingSubstituting oneone allophoneallophone forfor anotheranother willwill
not changenot change thethe meaningmeaning of theof the wordword
 NativeNative speakersspeakers areare notnot awareaware ofof allophonicallophonic
differencesdifferences

Examples of AllophonesExamples of Allophones
 /n//n/
[ŋ][ŋ] beforebefore aa velarvelar consonantconsonant (Span. banca,(Span. banca,
mango)mango)
 //pp/, //, /tt/, //, /kk/ -->/ --> aspiratedaspirated [p[phh
], [t], [thh
], [k], [khh
] in] in
word orword or stressedstressed syllablesyllable initialinitial positionposition

Minimal Pairs
Are words with different meanings that have the
same sounds except for one. These
contrasting sounds can either be consonants
or vowels.
Examples:Examples:

PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Phonological Rules are of two types:
Assimilation Rules: A phonetic feature
present in one segment is added to an
adjacent segment, making the two more
similar
Dissimilation Rules : A phonetic feature
present in 2 segments is deleted in one of the
segments making them more different.

The Rules of PhonologyThe Rules of Phonology
WithWith rulesrules, we state the segments, we state the segments affectedaffected, the, the
phonemicphonemic environmentenvironment, and the phonetic, and the phonetic change.change.
Change Feature RulesRules
 AssimilationAssimilation: Two neighboring sounds becoming: Two neighboring sounds becoming
similarsimilar to eachto each otherother forfor easyeasy ofof articulationarticulation..
Examples:Examples:
 Rule OneRule One: a: a vowelvowel becomesbecomes nasalizednasalized before abefore a
nasalnasal sound in the samesound in the same syllable.syllable.
 Rule TwoRule Two:: NasalsNasals andand liquidsliquids areare devoiceddevoiced after theafter the
voiceless soundsvoiceless sounds //pp/ and // and /ss/ (/ (free variationfree variation) () (e.ge.g.,.,
ssnnow, sow, sllow, sow, smmart, part, prrobe, sobe, sllotot).).

Rule ThreeRule Three: Change the: Change the placeplace ofof articulationarticulation of aof a
nasalnasal consonant so that itconsonant so that it agreesagrees with thewith the placeplace
feature value of a followingfeature value of a following consonant:consonant:
 [in][in] beforebefore vowelsvowels andand alveolarsalveolars ((e.ge.g.,., ininaattentive,ttentive,
iinnorganic, inorganic, ineexcusable, inxcusable, inddefinable, inefinable, inttolerant,olerant,
iinnequality, iequality, innoperative, ioperative, inndecision)decision)
 [im][im] beforebefore labialslabials ((e.ge.g.,., imimppossible, imossible, imbbalance,alance,
imimppatient, imatient, immmaculateaculate))
 [ing][ing] beforebefore velarsvelars ((e.ge.g.,., iinncomplete, icomplete, innglorious,glorious,
iinncoherentcoherent))

 Dissimilation: TwoDissimilation: Two soundssounds thatthat becomebecome lessless
similarsimilar to eachto each other.other.
Add New Features RulesAdd New Features Rules (e.g.,(e.g., aspirationaspiration inin
English)English)
3-3- Deletion of Sounds Rules:Deletion of Sounds Rules:
a-a- DeleteDelete unstressed vowelsunstressed vowels (e.g.,(e.g., mystery,mystery,
general, funeral, memorygeneral, funeral, memory))
b-b- ContractionsContractions (e.g(e.g., I will/I., I will/I’’llll))
 DeleteDelete aa /g//g/ when itwhen it occursoccurs word initiallyword initially beforebefore aa
nasalnasal consonant or before a word final nasal (e.g.,consonant or before a word final nasal (e.g.,
sisiggnature/sinature/siggn, desin, desiggnation/desination/desiggn,n,
resigresignnation/resiation/resiggnn))
d-d- DeleteDelete a word-final /a word-final /bb/ when it occurs after an/ when it occurs after an
//mm/ (e.g.,/ (e.g., bombombb, clim, climbbe, toe, tommb, cob, commbb))

Some Important Rules inSome Important Rules in
EnglishEnglish
a-a- ChangeChange aa vowelvowel to ato a shwashwa when it iswhen it is
unstressedunstressed (e.g.,(e.g., compete/competition,compete/competition,
medicinal/medicine, maintain/maintenance,medicinal/medicine, maintain/maintenance,
telegraph/telegraphy, analysis/analytic,telegraph/telegraphy, analysis/analytic,
solid/solidity, phone/phoneticsolid/solidity, phone/phonetic))
b- Anb- An Alveolar stopAlveolar stop becomes abecomes a voiced flapvoiced flap
whenwhen precededpreceded byby a stresseda stressed vowel andvowel and
followed by an unstressedfollowed by an unstressed vowel.vowel.
Write /rajt/ writer /rajt (D) shwa r/ rideWrite /rajt/ writer /rajt (D) shwa r/ ride
riderrider

Other Phonological ProcessesOther Phonological Processes
ApocopeApocope: deletion of: deletion of lastlast segment(s) of a word.segment(s) of a word.
example: breakfast -- breakfaexample: breakfast -- breakfass
AphesisAphesis: deletion of: deletion of firstfirst segment(s) of a word.segment(s) of a word.
Example: around -Example: around --- round.round.
AblautAblaut: The Proto-Indo-European system of root: The Proto-Indo-European system of root
vowel alternations.vowel alternations. Such as, sit, sat, seat, soot,
etc.
UmlautUmlaut:: Umlaut occurs where aUmlaut occurs where a vowel assimilatesvowel assimilates
to theto the place of articulationplace of articulation of a followingof a following
consonant.consonant.

Epenthesis:Epenthesis: insertioninsertion of aof a soundsound, e.g. Latin, e.g. Latin
""homrehomre" became Spanish "" became Spanish "hombrehombre""
Syncope: vowel sound is deleted word-Syncope: vowel sound is deleted word-
internallyinternally
 Gliding of liquids: TheGliding of liquids: The conversionconversion of aof a liquidliquid
[l] to a[l] to a glideglide [w], a common type of[w], a common type of
consonantal simplification.consonantal simplification.
Glide epenthesis: TheGlide epenthesis: The insertioninsertion of aof a glide,glide,
usually in the interests of promotingusually in the interests of promoting
canonical (maximally simple, unmarked)canonical (maximally simple, unmarked)
syllable structure, e.g.: `we are' [syllable structure, e.g.: `we are' [wijawija]]

Cluster reduction:Cluster reduction: OftenOften clustercluster simplificationsimplification,,
through omission of a consonant in thethrough omission of a consonant in the
middlemiddle position, may occur in words andposition, may occur in words and
phrases, especially, /phrases, especially, /tt/ and // and /dd/ are frequent in/ are frequent in
clusters and thus frequently subject toclusters and thus frequently subject to
deletion.deletion.
Consider these sets of phrases, all with a word-Consider these sets of phrases, all with a word-
finalfinal //tt/, which may be deleted./, which may be deleted.
(a)(a) next timenext time, the first, the first day,day, lastlast DecemberDecember
(b)(b) last Maylast May,, most peoplemost people, the best night, the best night

Representation of typicalRepresentation of typical
Phonological ProcessesPhonological Processes
This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE.This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE. The slashThe slash (/)(/)
specifies the environment in which thespecifies the environment in which the
changechange takes placetakes place. So the. So the rule reads:rule reads: AA
voiced fricativevoiced fricative isis transformedtransformed into theinto the
correspondingcorresponding voiceless soundvoiceless sound when itwhen it
appearsappears beforebefore a voiceless sounda voiceless sound..
voiced fricative ¡ú voiceless/__ voicelessvoiced fricative ¡ú voiceless/__ voiceless

Representation of typicalRepresentation of typical
Phonological ProcessesPhonological Processes
 Nasalization ruleNasalization rule
[ - nasal]¡ú [ + nasal]/__ [ + nasal][ - nasal]¡ú [ + nasal]/__ [ + nasal]
 DentalizationDentalization rulerule
[ - dental] ¡ú [ + dental]/.__[[ - dental] ¡ú [ + dental]/.__[ + dental]+ dental]
 Velarization ruleVelarization rule
[ - velar] ¡ú [ + velar]/__[ + velar][ - velar] ¡ú [ + velar]/__[ + velar]

DistributionDistribution
Set of phonetic environments in which a soundSet of phonetic environments in which a sound
occurs.occurs.
Types of Distribution
 Contrastive distribution:Contrastive distribution:
WeWe cancan prove thatprove that two soundstwo sounds belongbelong toto twotwo
separate phonemesseparate phonemes if we can show that theyif we can show that they
are inare in contrastive distribution.contrastive distribution.

Contrastive distributionContrastive distribution
Two sounds are in contrastive distribution, alsoTwo sounds are in contrastive distribution, also
known as overlapping distribution, when theyknown as overlapping distribution, when they
appear in the same environmentsappear in the same environments. In other. In other
words, given information about thewords, given information about the
phonological environment, it isphonological environment, it is unpredictableunpredictable
which of the sounds under investigation willwhich of the sounds under investigation will
appear in that environment.appear in that environment.

There areThere are two waystwo ways toto showshow that soundsthat sounds areare inin
contrastive distribution.contrastive distribution.
 Find at least oneFind at least one minimal pairminimal pair of wordsof words
distinguisheddistinguished only byonly by the soundsthe sounds in question. Ain question. A
minimal pairminimal pair is quick and easy proof that the twois quick and easy proof that the two
sounds are contrastive -- after all, the twosounds are contrastive -- after all, the two
sounds are used in the language to makesounds are used in the language to make
contrasting words.contrasting words.
 Even ifEven if you can't findyou can't find aa minimal pairminimal pair, you may, you may bebe
ableable to demonstrate that the two sounds appearto demonstrate that the two sounds appear
inin overlapping environmentsoverlapping environments; that is, that; that is, that
nothing about their environments can be used tonothing about their environments can be used to
predict which sound will appear.predict which sound will appear.

Contrastive distributionContrastive distribution is anis an indicationindication thatthat
the two sounds in question are differentthe two sounds in question are different
phonemes.phonemes.
Examples:Examples:
The sounds /The sounds /pp/ and // and /kk/ are in/ are in contrastivecontrastive
distributiondistribution inin EnglishEnglish in such words asin such words as skillskill
andand spillspill ..

Complementary DistributionComplementary Distribution
If two sounds are inIf two sounds are in complementary distribution,complementary distribution,
we can show that they arewe can show that they are allophones of theallophones of the
same phonemesame phoneme..
Two sounds are in complementary distributionTwo sounds are in complementary distribution
when theywhen they nevernever appear in the sameappear in the same
environment. This means that, given informationenvironment. This means that, given information
about the phonological environment, it isabout the phonological environment, it is
predictablepredictable which of the two sounds will appear.which of the two sounds will appear.

ComplementaryComplementary
DistributionDistribution
Examples:Examples:
[[ĩĩ] and [] and [ii ] are allophones of the same] are allophones of the same
phonemephoneme /i/./i/.
[[ĩĩ] occurs before nasal consonants in the] occurs before nasal consonants in the
same syllable: bean [same syllable: bean [bĩ nbĩ n]]
[i][i] occurs elsewhere: beat [occurs elsewhere: beat [bit]bit]

Free Variation
Free variation is theFree variation is the interchangeableinterchangeable relationshiprelationship
between twobetween two phonesphones, in which the phones may, in which the phones may
substitute for one another in the samesubstitute for one another in the same
environment without causing a change inwithout causing a change in
meaning.meaning.
ExamplesExamples::
Both unaspiratedBoth unaspirated [t][t] and aspiratedand aspirated [t ]ʰ[t ]ʰ may occurmay occur
word-finallword-finally in many accents of English. They in many accents of English. The
choice of one or the other is neverchoice of one or the other is never capablecapable ofof
changingchanging the meaning of athe meaning of a wordword..

Pluralization in EnglishPluralization in English
AA:: cab, cad, bag, love, can, cam, bang, call,cab, cad, bag, love, can, cam, bang, call,
bar, boybar, boy
BB:: cap, cat, back, cuff, faithcap, cat, back, cuff, faith
C:C: bus, bush, buzz, garage, match, badgebus, bush, buzz, garage, match, badge
D:D: child, ox, mouse, sheep, criterionchild, ox, mouse, sheep, criterion
 Insert a shwa before plural ending when aInsert a shwa before plural ending when a
regular noun ends in a sibilant.regular noun ends in a sibilant.
 Change the voiced /z/ to voiceless /s/ when itChange the voiced /z/ to voiceless /s/ when it
is preceded by a voiceless sound.is preceded by a voiceless sound.

Past Tense in EnglishPast Tense in English
AA:: grab, hug, love, buzz, fan, judge, kill, tie, caregrab, hug, love, buzz, fan, judge, kill, tie, care
B:B: reap, peak, kiss, wishreap, peak, kiss, wish
CC:: state, raidstate, raid
D:D: is, run, sing, have, go, hitis, run, sing, have, go, hit
 Insert a shwa before past tense ending when aInsert a shwa before past tense ending when a
regular verb ends in /t/ or /d/.regular verb ends in /t/ or /d/.
 Change the voiced /d/ to voiceless /t/ when it isChange the voiced /d/ to voiceless /t/ when it is
preceded by a voiceless sound.preceded by a voiceless sound.

Semantics is the study of meaning in
language. The meaning of morphemes,
words, phrases, and sentences.

Semantic StudiesSemantic Studies
 thethe meaningmeaning of language in use:of language in use:
 Features ofFeatures of the contextthe context
 ConventionsConventions of language useof language use
 TheThe goalsgoals of theof the speakerspeaker

Subfields of SemanticsSubfields of Semantics
Lexical SemanticsLexical Semantics: The: The studystudy of theof the
meaningsmeanings of words and theof words and the meaningmeaning
relationshipsrelationships amongamong words.words.
Phrasal or Sentential SemanticsPhrasal or Sentential Semantics: The: The studystudy
of theof the meaningmeaning ofof syntacticsyntactic units largerunits larger
than the word.than the word.
PragmaticsPragmatics: The: The studystudy of how contextof how context
affectsaffects meaning.meaning.

Connotations and Denotations
The relationship between words and meanings is
extremely complicated, and belongs to the field
of semantics. Though, words do not have
single, simple meanings. Traditionally,
grammarians have referred to the meanings of
words in two parts:
 Denotation
 a literal meaning of the word
 Connotation
 Refers to the associations that are connected to a
certain word or the emotional suggestions related to
that word

Connotations and Denotations
Example:
If you look up the word snake in a dictionary,
you will discover that one of its denotative
meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless,
sometimes venomous reptiles¡having a long,
tapering, cylindrical body and found in most
tropical and temperate regions." On the
other hand, The connotations for the word
snake could include evil or danger.

Semantic class
A semantic class contains words that share
a semantic property. Semantic classes
may intersect. The intersection of female
and young can be girl.

Semantic Properties
A semantic property consists of the
components of meaning of a word. The
component female is a semantic property
of girl, woman, actress etc.

Semantic features
A semantic feature is a notational method
which can be used to express the existence
or non-existence of semantic properties by
using plus and minus signs.
Man is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [+ADULT]
Woman is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [+ADULT]
Boy is [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [-ADULT]
Girl is [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [-ADULT]

Homonyms
Homonymy: Same phonology but different senses (e.g.,
bank). Homograph is to have same written word with
different senses (e.g., minute and minute) while
homophone is to have the same spoken word with
different senses (e.g., maid and made). There are the
following possibilities:
- Same syntactic category and same spelling (e.g.,
lap: circuit , & part of body)
- Different spelling & same syntactic (e.g., ring,
wring[as in wringing wet clothes])
- Different syntactic category and same spelling (e.g.,
keep)
- Different syntactic category and different spelling
(e.g., not and knot)

Polysemous
Polysemy:
It is to have different but related senses. The
same entry has different yet related senses
while homonyms are listed in a dictionary as
separate entries, e.g., hook: piece of metal;
trap; something that attracts, etc., also bear is
to carry, support and tolerate

Synonyms
Synonym: It is to have different phonological words with
the same meaning (e.g., couch, sofa; boy, lad; toilet,
lavatory; large, big; lawyer, attorney; annoy, torment,
pester, plague, molest, worry, harass, vex, bother;
passive, sluggish, indifferent). True or exact synonyms
are rare. We have formal/informal contrast (e.g., fatigue,
tired; wife, spouse), dialectology (e.g., truck/lorry), and
attitude (skinny, thin, slim; fat, obese, chubby). Note the
difference (large sister vs. big and large house vs. big).
Note we say profound and deep thought, but deep water
and not profound water.

Antonyms
Opposites: There are the following kinds:
a- Complementary Antonyms (e.g.,
alive/dead, present/absent, awake/asleep)
b- Gradable Antonyms (e.g., big/small,
hot/cold, fast/slow, happy/sad) (continuum)
c- Relational Opposites (e.g., give/receive,
buy/sell, teacher/pupil).

Hyponyms
Hyponymy/Superordinate:
It is a relation of inclusion, e.g., a dog is a
hyponym of animal; red is of color. There
are also Adult-Young relationships (e.g.,
dog/puppy, cat/kitten, cow/calf, pig/piglet,
duck/duckling, etc.) There are also Male-
Female relationships (e.g., dog/bitch,
bull/cow).

Meronyms
Meronymy:
It is a part-whole relationship between lexical
items (e.g., page/book, wheel/car, valve/engine,
nose/face, etc.). Note that X is part of Y or Y
has X. Note also that hyponymy is always
transitive but not meronymy. For example, if
whale is a hyponym of mammal and mammal is
a hyponym of creature, whale is necessarily a
hyponym of creature. However, if a hole is a
meronym of button and button is of shirt, hole is
not necessarily meronym of shirt.

Metonyms
Metonyms: A word used in place of another
to convey the same meaning
(brass/military, Moscow/Russian
government).
Retronyms: Expressions that once were
redundant (silent movie, whole milk,
surface mail).

Thematic Roles
 Agent: It is the role of the animate initiator of some
action with volition, e.g., John cooked some rice.
 Patient: It is the entity undergoing the action or affected
by the action with some possible change in state, e.g.,
The heat melted the ice.
 Theme: It is the entity moved by an action, e.g., He
passed the ball. Note that the ball is moved but not
changed by the doer.
 Experiencer: It is an entity which undergoes an
experience which is not in control of it, e.g., Peter felt
embarrassed.
 Beneficiary: It is the entity for whose benefit the action is
performed, e.g., He called me a taxi.

Thematic Roles
 Instrument: It is the entity, representing the
means by which an action is performed, e.g., He
cut the cake with a sharp knife.
 Location: It is the entity, representing the place
in which something is situated or happens, e.g.,
The book is under the table.
 Goal: It is the entity towards which something
moves literally or metaphorically, e.g., I gave the
book to Peter.
 Source: It is the entity from which something
moves literally or metaphorically, e.g., She came
back from America last week.

Sentential Meaning
Entailment:
It is when the truth of one sentence implies the truth of
another.
It is a fixed truth relation regardless of empirical truth.
Sentence P entails Q when the truth of P guarantees
the truth of Q and the falsity of Q guarantees the falsity
of P (e.g., Peter assassinated the emperor entails the
emperor died). It can be lexical (hyponymy), e.g., If I buy
a cat, it entails that I bought an animal. It can also be
syntactic, e.g., If Peter bought the book that entails that
the book was bought by Peter.

Sentential Meaning
Contradiction:
It is when the truth of one sentence implies
the falseness of another.
e.g., If Elizabeth is a queen and Elizabeth is
a man.

Sentential Meaning
Anomaly
It is the violation of semantic rules to create
“nonsense.”
e.g., Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
e.g., My brother is an only child.

Sentential Meaning
 Metaphor
Expressions with non-literal meaning (e.g.,
walls have ears)
 Idioms
The meaning of the whole is not related to
the meaning of the parts (e.g., kick the
bucket).

Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of the meaningmeaning of
language in context. It is about what the
person speaking or writing actually meant,
rather than what the words themselves
mean.

Pragmatics Studies
Pragmatics involves three major communication
skills:
Using language for different purposes -- such as
greeting, informing, demanding, promising, and
requesting;
 Adapting or changing language according to the
needs or expectations of a listener or situation --
such as talking differently to a baby than to an
adult, giving enough background information to
an unfamiliar listener, talking differently in a
classroom than on a playground.

Pragmatics Studies
Following rulesrules for conversations and narrative
(e.g., telling stories, giving book reports,
recounting events of the day); there are rules for
taking turns in conversation, introducing topics
of conversation, staying on the topic, rephrasing
when misunderstood, and telling a story. There
are also rules for appropriate use of nonverbal
signals in conversation: distance between
speaker and listener, facial expressions, and
eye contact. Rules may vary depending on
language and culture.

Discourse Context
Pro-forms
A pro-form is a type of function words or
expression that stands in for another (expresses
the same content as) a word, phrase, clause, or
sentence whose meaning is recoverable from the
context. They are used to avoid repetitive
expressions and in quantification.
Pro-forms are divided into several categories
according to which part of speech they
substitute:

Discourse Context
PronounPronoun is the part of speech used to substitute an
antecedent noun mentionated in the contexts, it could
be a person, number, and gender. Pronouns are
classified as:
personal (I, we, you, he, she, it, they).
 demonstrative (this, these, that, those),
relative (who, which, that, as),
indefinite (e.g., each, all, everyone, either, one, both,
any, such, somebody),
interrogative (who, which, what),
possessive, sometimes termed possessive adjectives
(my, your, his, her, our, their),
 and reflexive (e.g., myself, herself). The case of the
pronoun depends upon its function in the sentence
structure.

Discourse Context
E.g. “John gave the coat to Alice."
He gave It to her .

Discourse Context
Pro-verbsPro-verbs
Is a word or phrase that stands in place of a verb
(in order that the verb not need to be repeated). E.g.
Who can tell? —No-one can [tell].
Why can't he do it? —He can [do it], he just won't [do it].
Clean your room! —I don't want to [clean my room].
He refused to clean his room when I told him to [clean his
room].
"He asked me to leave, so I did so".

Discourse Context
Pro- sentencesPro- sentences
A pro-sentence is a function word or expression that
substitutes for a whole sentence are a kind of pro-
forms and are therefore anaphoric .E.g
Q: Is she at home? A: I believe that she is (literally, that
yes).
She didn't leave home, but John did (literally, John yes).

Discourse Context
 GappingGapping
In linguistics, a lexical gap refers to a possible word form
that just doesn't exist in the language, for any number of
possible reasons. This may be due to productive
morphology; for example, the word "ungood" is a
possible word form in English, but doesn't exist due to
the fact that the same meaning is already established in
the existing word "bad". (One could argue, though, that a
word such as "ungood" might be used in a poetic or
emphatic sense.)
My uncle dried

Discourse Context
Sluicing:
sluicing In syntax, sluicing designates a grammatical
structure in which an interrogative clause is represented
only by a wh- phrase. Examples of sluicing in English
include:
(1) :Phoebe wants to eat something, but she doesn't know
what.
(2) :Jon doesn't like the lentils, but he doesn't know why.

Discourse Context
Articles
the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used
to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite
article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say,
"Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Discourse Context
Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that
begins the next word. So...
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car;
a bike; a zoo; a dog
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an
egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a
user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant
'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle

Discourse Context
Count and Noncount Nouns
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be
omitted entirely.
"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water)
or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk,
perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He
spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
"I need a bottle of water."
"I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water,"
unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Situational Context
 Maxims of Conversational
The success of a conversation depends upon the various speakers'
approach to the interaction. The way in which people try to make
conversations work is sometimes called maxims of
Conversational. We can understand it partly by noting those
people who are exceptions to the rule, and are not capable of
making the conversation work.
They are the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and
manner.

Situational Context
 Quality: speakers should be truthful. They should not say what they think
is false, or make statements for which they have no evidence.
 Quantity: a contribution should be as informative as is required for the
conversation to proceed. It should be neither too little, nor too much. (It is
not clear how one can decide what quantity of information satisfies the
maxim in a given case.)
 Relevance: speakers' contributions should relate clearly to the purpose
of the exchange.
 Manner: speakers' contributions should be perspicuous: clear, orderly
and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.

Situational Context
Others:
Assertion: what is asserted is the obvious, plain or
surface meaning of the utterance (though many
utterances are not assertions of anything).
Presupposition: what is taken for granted in the
utterance. “I saw the Mona Lisa in the Louvre”
presupposes that the Mona Lisa is in the Louvre.

Situational Context
Entailments: logical or necessary
corollaries of an utterance, thus, the above
example entails:
 I saw something in the Louvre.
 I saw something somewhere.
 Something was seen.
 There is a Louvre.
 There is a Mona Lisa, and so on.

Situational Context
 Inferences: these are interpretations that other
people draw from the utterance, for which we cannot
always directly account. From this example, someone
might infer, rationally, that the Mona Lisa is, or was
recently, on show to the public. They might infer, less
rationally, that the speaker has been to France recently -
because if the statement were about something from
years ago, he or she would have said so.

Situational Context
Speech Acts
Speech act theory broadly explains these utterances as having three parts or
aspects: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.
 Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that
have taken place.
 IIlocutionary acts are the real actions which are
performed by the utterance, where saying equals doing,
as in betting, plighting one's troth, welcoming and
warning.
 Perlocutionary acts are the effects of the utterance
on the listener, who accepts the bet or pledge of
marriage, is welcomed or warned.


Situational Context
 Representatives: here the speaker asserts a
proposition to be true, using such verbs as: affirm,
believe, conclude, deny, report.
 Directives: here the speaker tries to make the hearer do
something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge,
command, dare, invite, insist, request.
 Commissives: here the speaker commits himself (or
herself) to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as:
guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake,
warrant.
 Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude to or
about a state of affairs, using such verbs as: apologize,
appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank,
welcome.
 Declarations the speaker alters the external status or
condition of an object or situation

Situational Context
Performatives
“Have you got any cash on you?”
where the speaker really wants the hearer to
understand the meaning:
“Can you lend me some money? I don't have
much on me.”

Situational Context
Presuppositions. How do sentences get into the
conversational background? The most obvious way is for
someone to utter them, and for them to be accepted that
way.
But it is important to notice that that's not the only way of
getting a sentence into the conversational background. If
it were, you would have to say every single thing you
wanted someone to understand. But as the flat tire
example from the previous section showed, we can often
send extra messages that weren't spoken in words.
How?

Situational Context
Examples:
Cleft Sentences:
(1) It was Rex who stole the bubblegum
(P1) Someone stole the bubblegum
Pseudocleft Sentences:
(2) What Rex stole was the bubblegum
(P2) Rex stole something
Definite Descriptions:
(3) The Queen of England is popular
(P3) There is a (unique) Queen of England

Situational Context
(4) Ivana has stopped cheating on Logic quizzes
(P4) Ivana has previously cheated on Logic quizzes
Causal/Explanatory Sentences:
(5) Nomiya sang a song in order to entertain the
crowd.
(P5) Nomiya sang a song.
(6) The bubble expand because it was heated.
(P5) The bubble expanded.

Situational Context
Deixis is reference by means of an expression whose
interpretation is relative to the (usually) extralinguistic
context of the utterance, such as :
who is speaking
the time or place of speaking
the gestures of the speaker, or
the current location in the discourse.

Situational Context
Person deixis is commonly expressed by the
following kinds of constituents
Possessive affixes of nouns
Possessive affixes of nouns
Pronouns
First person deixis is deictic reference that refers
to the speaker, or both the speaker and
referents grouped with the speaker

Situational Context
Examples (English)The following singular pronounssingular pronouns:
 I
 me
 myself
 my
 mine
The following plural pronounsplural pronouns:
 we
 us
 ourselves
 our
 ours
Am, the first person form of the verb be

Situational Context
Second person deixis is deictic reference to a person or
persons identified as addressee
Examples (English)
you
yourself
yourselves
your
yours

Situational Context
Third person deixis is deictic reference to a referent(s) not
identified as the speaker or addressee.
he
she
they
the third person singular verb suffix -s
He sometimes flies

Situational Context
A speaker is typically the deictic center of his or her own
deictic references. These are grammaticalized in first
person morphemes
An addresser is any of the immediate intended recipients
of the speaker's communication, as grammaticalized in
second person morphemes.

Situational Context
Time deixis is reference to time relative to a temporal
reference point. Typically, this point is the moment of
utterance.
Temporal adverbs
 now / then
 yesterday / today / tomorrow

Situational Context
 Place deixis is deictic reference to a location relative to
the location of a participant in the speech event, typically
the speaker.
Examples (English)
 this (way)
 that (direction)
 here
 there

Situational Context
Social deixis is reference to the social characteristics
of, or distinctions between, the participants or referents
in a speech event
 Mr. President
 Your Honor .

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