Basic on research

1. What is Research?What is Research?
 Research is simply the process of findingResearch is simply the process of finding
solutions to a problem after a thoroughsolutions to a problem after a thorough
study and analysis of the situationalstudy and analysis of the situational
factors.factors.

2. Definition of ResearchDefinition of Research
 Business research as anBusiness research as an organized, systematic,organized, systematic,
databased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry ordatabased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or
investigation into a specific probleminvestigation into a specific problem, under, under
taken with the purpose of finding answer ortaken with the purpose of finding answer or
solution to it.solution to it.
 Examples:Examples: “Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and“Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and
product innovation”; “Updating policies andproduct innovation”; “Updating policies and
procedures in keeping with the latestprocedures in keeping with the latest
governments regulations and organizationalgovernments regulations and organizational
changes.changes.

3. Scientific ResearchScientific Research
 Decisions based on the results of scientificDecisions based on the results of scientific
investigations tend to be more effective thaninvestigations tend to be more effective than
those that are not.those that are not.
 Scientific research is focused on the goal ofScientific research is focused on the goal of
problem solving and pursues a step-by-stepproblem solving and pursues a step-by-step
logical, organized and rigorous method tological, organized and rigorous method to
identify problems, gather data, analyze them andidentify problems, gather data, analyze them and
draw valid conclusions therefrom.draw valid conclusions therefrom.

4. The Hallmarks of ScientificThe Hallmarks of Scientific
ResearchResearch
 PurposivenessPurposiveness
 RigorRigor
 TestabilityTestability
 ReplicabilityReplicability
 Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence
 ObjectivityObjectivity
 GeneralizabilityGeneralizability
 Parsimony.Parsimony.

5. ExampleExample
 The case of a manager who is interestedThe case of a manager who is interested
in investigation how employeesin investigation how employees
commitment of the organization can becommitment of the organization can be
increased.increased.
 How research may be considered asHow research may be considered as
scientific research.scientific research.

6. PurposivenessPurposiveness
 A definite aim or purpose for the research.A definite aim or purpose for the research.
 The focus is on increasing the commitment ofThe focus is on increasing the commitment of
employees to the organization, which will beemployees to the organization, which will be
helpful in many ways. An increase in employeehelpful in many ways. An increase in employee
commitment will mean less turnover, lesscommitment will mean less turnover, less
absenteeism, and probably increasedabsenteeism, and probably increased
performance levels, all of which would benefitperformance levels, all of which would benefit
the organization. The research thus haves athe organization. The research thus haves a
purposive focus.purposive focus.

7. RigorRigor
 A good theoretical base and a soundA good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design would add rigor tomethodological design would add rigor to
a purposive study.a purposive study.
 Rigor connotes carefulness,Rigor connotes carefulness,
scrupulousness, and degree of exactitudescrupulousness, and degree of exactitude
in research investigation.in research investigation.

8. In the case of our example, let us say the manager of an
organization asks 10 to 12 employees in the organization to indicate
what would increase their level of commitment to it. If on basis of
their responses alone, the manager reaches several conclusions on
how employee commitment can be increased, the whole approach to
the investigation would be unscientific. That would lack rigor
because, to mention just a fews reasons,
1. The conclusions would be incorrectly drawn since they
would be based on the thoughts of a few employees whose
opinions may not be representative of those of the entire
workforce.
2. The manner of framing and addressing the questions could
have introduced bias or incorrectness in the responses
3. There might be other important influences on organizational
commitment that this small sample of respondents did not
or could not verbalize during the interviews, and the
researcher would have failed to include them

9. Because of the above, conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a
good theoretical foundation, as evidence by reason (3), and methodological
sophistication, as evident from (1) and (2) above, would be unscientific.
Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought-
out methodologis. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right
kinds of information from an appropriate sample with minimum degree of bias,
and facilitate appropriate analysis of the data gathered

10. TestabilityTestability
 If, after talking to a random selection ofIf, after talking to a random selection of
employees of the organization and studyemployees of the organization and study
of the previous research done in the areaof the previous research done in the area
of organizational commitment, theof organizational commitment, the
manager or researcher develops certainmanager or researcher develops certain
hypotheses on how employeehypotheses on how employee
commitment can be enhanced, then thesecommitment can be enhanced, then these
can be tested by applying certaincan be tested by applying certain
statistical tests to the data collected for thestatistical tests to the data collected for the
purpose.purpose.

11. For instance, the researches might hypothesize that those
employees who perceive greater opportunities for
participation in decision making would have a higher level of
commitmnet. This a a hypothesis that can be tested when
the data are collected. A correlation nalysis would incicate
whether or not the hypothesis is substainted.

12. ReplicabilityReplicability
 The results of the tests of hypothesesThe results of the tests of hypotheses
should be supported againand again whenshould be supported againand again when
the same type of research is repeated inthe same type of research is repeated in
other similar circumstances.other similar circumstances.

13. Precision and confidencePrecision and confidence
 Precision refer to how close the findings,Precision refer to how close the findings,
based on a sample, are tobased on a sample, are to ‘reality’. In other‘reality’. In other
words, precision reflects the degree ofwords, precision reflects the degree of
accuracy or exactitude of the resultsaccuracy or exactitude of the results
based on the sample, to what really existsbased on the sample, to what really exists
in the universe.in the universe.
 Confidence refers to the probability thatConfidence refers to the probability that
our estimations are correct.our estimations are correct.

14. ObjectivityObjectivity
 The conclusions drawn through theThe conclusions drawn through the
interpretation of the results of datainterpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, theyanalysis should be objective; that is, they
should be based on the facts resultingshould be based on the facts resulting
from the findings from actual data, and notfrom the findings from actual data, and not
based on our own subjective or emotionalbased on our own subjective or emotional
values.values.

15. GeneralizabilityGeneralizability
 Generalizability refersto the scope ofGeneralizability refersto the scope of
applicability of the research findings in oneapplicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settingsorganizational setting to other settings

16. ParsimonyParsimony
 Simplicity in explaining the phenomena orSimplicity in explaining the phenomena or
problems that occur, and in generatingproblems that occur, and in generating
solutions for the problems, is alwayssolutions for the problems, is always
preferred to complex research frameworkspreferred to complex research frameworks
that consider an unmanageable numberthat consider an unmanageable number
factors.factors.

17. For instance, if two or three specific variables in
the work situation are identified, which when
change would raise the organizational
commitment of the employees by 45%, that
would be more useful and valuable to the
manager than if he were recommended a change
of 10 different variables to increase
organizational commitment by 48%.

18. The Building Blocks of SciencdeThe Building Blocks of Sciencde
 Deduction and InductionDeduction and Induction
 Deduction is the process by which weDeduction is the process by which we
arrive at reasoned conclusion by logicallyarrive at reasoned conclusion by logically
generalizing from a known fact.generalizing from a known fact.
 For example we know that all highFor example we know that all high
performers are highly proficient in doingperformers are highly proficient in doing
his jobhis job

19.  Induction, on the other hand, is a processInduction, on the other hand, is a process
where we observe certain phenomenawhere we observe certain phenomena
and on this basis arrive at conclusions.and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
 In other words, in induction we logicallyIn other words, in induction we logically
establish a general proposition based onestablish a general proposition based on
observed facts.observed facts.

20.  The method, starting with a theoriticalThe method, starting with a theoritical
framework, formulating hypothesis, andframework, formulating hypothesis, and
logically deducing from the results of thelogically deducing from the results of the
study is known as the HYPOTHETICOstudy is known as the HYPOTHETICO
DEDUCTIVE METHOD.DEDUCTIVE METHOD.

21. The Building Blocks of Science
Deduction and Induction
Identification of
problem area
Identification of
problem area
Theoretical framework
or
Network of associations
Theoretical framework
or
Network of associations
ObservationObservation
Refinement of theory
(pure) research
or
Implementation
(applied research)
Refinement of theory
(pure) research
or
Implementation
(applied research)
Constructs
Concepts
Operational definitions
Constructs
Concepts
Operational definitions
Analysis
of data
Analysis
of data
Data CollectionData Collection
HypothesesHypotheses
Research
design
Research
design
Interpretation
of data
Interpretation
of data

22. The Hypothetico-Deductive MethodThe Hypothetico-Deductive Method
 ObservationObservation
 Preliminary information gatheringPreliminary information gathering
 Theory formulationTheory formulation
 Further scientific data collectionFurther scientific data collection
 Data analysisData analysis
 DeductionDeduction

23. Ch 4: The Research ProcessCh 4: The Research Process
 Two distinct aspects of Scientific inquiry inTwo distinct aspects of Scientific inquiry in
the hypothetico-deductive method:the hypothetico-deductive method:
 The process of developing the conceptualThe process of developing the conceptual
framework and the hypotheses for testingframework and the hypotheses for testing
 The design which involves the planning of theThe design which involves the planning of the
actual study, dealing with such aspects as theactual study, dealing with such aspects as the
location for the study, how to select samplelocation for the study, how to select sample
and collect the data and how to analyze theand collect the data and how to analyze the
data.data.

24. The research process for basic
and applied research
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified
PRELIMINARY
DATA
GATHERING
Interviewing
Literature Survey
PRELIMINARY
DATA
GATHERING
Interviewing
Literature Survey
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Research problem
delineated
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Research problem
delineated
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Variabel Clearly
identified and
labeled
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Variabel Clearly
identified and
labeled
GENERATION
of
HYPOTHESES
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
DESIGN
SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
DESIGN
DATA
COLLECTON,
ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION
DEDUCTION
Hypotheses
substantiated?
Research question
answered?
NO Yes
Report Writing Report Presentation
Managerial
Decision Making
11
2
3
4
5 6 7
8
9 10 11
Statement Permasalahan
(Gap antara yg seharusnya
dng kenyataan)

25. Purpose of
the study
Types of
Investigation
Extent of researcher
interference
Study setting Measurement and
measures
PROBLEMSTATEMENT
Exploration
Description
Hypothesis
testing
Establishing:
- Causal relationship
- Correlation
- Group difference,
ranks, etc
Minimal: Studying
events as they
normally occur
Manipulation and/or
control and/or
simulation
Contrived
Non contrived Operational
definition
Items (measure)
Scaling
Categorizing
Coding
Unit of analysis
(population to
be studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Machines
etc
Sampling
design
Probability/non
probability
Sample
Size (n)
Time
horizon
One-shot (cross
sectional)
Longitudinal
Data Collections
Method
Interviewing
Questionnaire
Observation
Unobtrusive
methods
DATA
ANALYSIS
1. Feel for data
2. Goodness of
data
3. Hypotheses
testing
DETAILS OF STUDY MEASUREMENT

26. Step 1: ObservationStep 1: Observation
 Identifying the broad problem areaIdentifying the broad problem area
through process of observing andthrough process of observing and
docusing on the situation.docusing on the situation.
 The specific issues that need to beThe specific issues that need to be
research within this situation may not beresearch within this situation may not be
identified at this stage.identified at this stage.

27. Example of Broad ProblemExample of Broad Problem
Area:Area:
 Training program are perhaps not asTraining program are perhaps not as
effective as anticipated.effective as anticipated.
 Saturation of Islamic Bank Market.Saturation of Islamic Bank Market.
 Lack of confidence of the ummah onLack of confidence of the ummah on
Islamic Bank.Islamic Bank.
 Role of zakah on poverty alleviationRole of zakah on poverty alleviation
 Dinar/Dirham as an alternative of fiatDinar/Dirham as an alternative of fiat
moneymoney

28. Step 2: Preliminary Data CollectionStep 2: Preliminary Data Collection
 Nature of Data to be Collected:Nature of Data to be Collected:
- Background information of the org- Background information of the org
- Information on structural factors and- Information on structural factors and
management philosophy.management philosophy.
- Perception, Attitutes and behavioral res- Perception, Attitutes and behavioral res
ponses.ponses.

29.  Literature Survey:Literature Survey:
- the documentataion of a comprehensive- the documentataion of a comprehensive
review of the published and unpublishedreview of the published and unpublished
work form secondary sources of data inwork form secondary sources of data in
the area of specific interest.the area of specific interest.
- Reviewing the literature on the topic- Reviewing the literature on the topic
area at this time helps the researcher toarea at this time helps the researcher to
focus the interviews more meaningfulfocus the interviews more meaningful

30. Reasons for literature surveyReasons for literature survey
 To ensure that no important variable is ignored.To ensure that no important variable is ignored.
 To discover something that has been thoroughlyTo discover something that has been thoroughly
researchresearch
A survey of the literature not only helps theA survey of the literature not only helps the
researcher to include all the relevant variables inresearcher to include all the relevant variables in
the research project, but also facilitates thethe research project, but also facilitates the
creative integration of the information gatheredcreative integration of the information gathered
from the structured and unstructured interviewsfrom the structured and unstructured interviews

31. A good literature wsurvey ensures:A good literature wsurvey ensures:
 Important varia bles that are likely to influenceImportant varia bles that are likely to influence
the problem situation are not left out of thethe problem situation are not left out of the
study.study.
 A clear idea emerges as to what variables wouldA clear idea emerges as to what variables would
be most imprtant to consider (parsimony), whybe most imprtant to consider (parsimony), why
they would be considered important, and howthey would be considered important, and how
they should be investigated to solve thethey should be investigated to solve the
problem. Thus, literature wsurvey helps theproblem. Thus, literature wsurvey helps the
development of the theoritical framework and thedevelopment of the theoritical framework and the
hypotheses testing.hypotheses testing.

32.  Testibility and replicability of the finding of theTestibility and replicability of the finding of the
current research are enhanced.current research are enhanced.
 The problem statement can be made withThe problem statement can be made with
precision and clarity.precision and clarity.
 One does not run the risk ofOne does not run the risk of “reinventing the“reinventing the
whell” that is, wasting efforts on trying towhell” that is, wasting efforts on trying to
rediscover something that is already known.rediscover something that is already known.
 The problem investigated is perceived byThe problem investigated is perceived by
scientific community as relevant and siqnificant.scientific community as relevant and siqnificant.

33. Conducting the literature surveyConducting the literature survey
 Identifying the various published andIdentifying the various published and
unpublished material that are available onunpublished material that are available on
the topics of interest.the topics of interest.
 Gathering the relevant information eitherGathering the relevant information either
by going thorugh the necessary materialsby going thorugh the necessary materials
in a library or …in a library or …
 Writing up the literature reviewWriting up the literature review

34. Writing up the literature reviewWriting up the literature review
 Purpose of literature review is to identifyPurpose of literature review is to identify
and highlight the important variablesw,and highlight the important variablesw,
and to document the siqnificant findingand to document the siqnificant finding
from earlier research that will serve as thefrom earlier research that will serve as the
foundation on which the theoriticalfoundation on which the theoritical
framework for the current investigation canframework for the current investigation can
be based and the hypotheses developed,be based and the hypotheses developed,

35. Example of two literature surveyExample of two literature survey
 Example 4.1 pg 65: Risk-takingExample 4.1 pg 65: Risk-taking
behaviours and organizational outcomes.behaviours and organizational outcomes.
 Example 4.2 pg 66: OrganizationalExample 4.2 pg 66: Organizational
EffectivenessEffectiveness

36. Step 3: Problem DefinitionStep 3: Problem Definition
 After literature review, narrow down theAfter literature review, narrow down the
problem from its original broad base andproblem from its original broad base and
define more clearly the issues of concern.define more clearly the issues of concern.
 It is critical that the focus be unanbigouslyIt is critical that the focus be unanbigously
identified and defined.identified and defined.

37. A ProblemA Problem
 A problem could simply indicate an interest in anA problem could simply indicate an interest in an
issue where finding the right answer might helpissue where finding the right answer might help
to improve an existing situation.to improve an existing situation.
 A problem is defined asA problem is defined as any situation where aany situation where a
gap exist between the actual and the desiredgap exist between the actual and the desired
ideal state.ideal state.
 It is important thatIt is important that symptonssymptons of problems areof problems are
not defined as the real problemnot defined as the real problem

38.  One way of determining that the problem,One way of determining that the problem,
rather than symptom, is being addressedrather than symptom, is being addressed
is to ask the question:is to ask the question: ‘Is this factor I have‘Is this factor I have
identified an antecedent, the real problemidentified an antecedent, the real problem
or the consequence?’or the consequence?’

39. Steps 4: Theoritical FrameworkSteps 4: Theoritical Framework
 A theorretical framework is a conceptual modelA theorretical framework is a conceptual model
of how one theorizes or makes logical sense ofof how one theorizes or makes logical sense of
the relationships among the several factors thatthe relationships among the several factors that
habe been identified as important to thehabe been identified as important to the
problem.problem.
 The theoritical framework discusses theThe theoritical framework discusses the
interrelationships among the variables that areinterrelationships among the variables that are
deemed to be integral to the dynamics of thedeemed to be integral to the dynamics of the
situation being investigated.situation being investigated.

40.  Developing such conceptual framework helps usDeveloping such conceptual framework helps us
to postulate or hypothesize and test certainto postulate or hypothesize and test certain
relationships so as to improve our understandingrelationships so as to improve our understanding
of the dynamics of the situationnof the dynamics of the situationn
 From the theoretical framework, then, testableFrom the theoretical framework, then, testable
hypotheses can be developed to examinehypotheses can be developed to examine
whether the theory formulated is valid or not.whether the theory formulated is valid or not.
 The hypothesized relationships can thereafter bThe hypothesized relationships can thereafter b
e tested through appropriate statistical analyses.e tested through appropriate statistical analyses.

41.  By being able to test and replicate the findings,By being able to test and replicate the findings,
we will also have more conviction in the rigor ofwe will also have more conviction in the rigor of
our research.our research.
 Thus, the theoretical framework is the basis onThus, the theoretical framework is the basis on
which the entire research rests. Even if testablewhich the entire research rests. Even if testable
hypotheses are not necessarily generated,hypotheses are not necessarily generated,
developing a good theoretical framework isdeveloping a good theoretical framework is
central to examining the problem undercentral to examining the problem under
investigation.investigation.