Byzantine Period, Culture Evolution, Architecture and City Planning.

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Elective II
Evolution of Art, Culture and Technology

2. Greece: Introduction
Factors that favoured the rise of Greek civilization
Minoan Civilization
Mycenaean Civilization
The Dark Ages
Classical Period
Roman Period
Byzantine Period
Greek War of Independence
Twentieth Century
Twenty First Century
Case Study: Athens

3. Greece has one of the longest histories of any country.
Officially called the Hellenic republic, Greece is a
South east European country located at the cross
roads of Asia, Africa and Europe.
It is called the cradle of Western civilization.
It is the birthplace of democracy, political science, Olympics, drama-both theatre and
cinema.
Greek has as the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin

4. Strategically important location
Greece is at the tip of the Balkan peninsula making it a coveted region
Topography-Mountainous terrain and the long coastline helps in defence purpose
Fertile land encouraged settlements
Mineral deposits
Long coastline aids navigation and trade

6. Flourished on the island of Crete, in the Aegean Sea from 2900 BC to 1200 BC
Named after King Minos, who was recorded
as a prehistoric king of Crete
Largest excavated site is the Palace of
Knossos
Palaces also excavated at Phaistos, Mallia
and Kato Zakros
Minoan settlements also found on other islands-Thera, Melos, Kythera, Keos and
Rhodes

8. Earliest towns appear to have developed in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC
without any influx of foreign migrants
Small communities that already practiced such arts as the weaving and dyeing of
cloth
Pottery shows an elegance of line, although its painting is not distinguished
Palaces shattered by a major earthquake about 1700 B.C., but immediately rebuilt
on a grander scale
Flourished until about 1450 B.C., when a sudden disaster overwhelmed all but
Knossos
Palace of Knossos burned about 1380 B.C., probably never rebuilt on a large scale

9. Knossos was the capital city of the Minoan culture that centered on the island of Crete
Palaces and luxurious houses imply a king and an aristocracy
Existence of major palaces is evidence for states large enough to require
administrative centers, but their number implies that the government was largely
decentralized
Size of Knossos is proof that its king exercised suzerainty over the whole island
Existence of administrative records outside the main center shows that the other
palaces had a measure of independence

10. A small class of craftsmen would have been needed to provide luxury goods
Evidence for overseas contacts comes
from the Minoan pottery found in
different parts of the eastern
Mediterranean
Trade in olive oil, wine, and perfumes
was likely
Metals must have been mainly
imported
Timber may well have been plentiful
Luxury goods such as gold and ivory
were imported
Raw material for some of the stone vessels was brought from the mainland

11. Minoan colony at Keos was the only site to possess a
temple
Most characteristic religious symbols are the double axe
and the U-shaped "horns of consecration”
Most common cult figurine is of the Minoan Snake
Goddess
Caves were treated as sacred
Later tradition told strange tales of a Zeus
who died and was periodically reborn

12. Pictorial symbols systematized to form a
regular script called Linear A
Most documents are clay tablets, which were
inscribed with a sharp stylus while the clay
was still wet and then sun-dried
Religious offering tables were sometimes
inscribed
Their language was regarded as Semitic type or Anatolian, a branch of Indo-
European
MINOAN SCRIPT

13. Characterized by an exquisite naturalness combined with a disconcerting formalism
Absence of perspective in painting
and accurate detailing
done
 All important buildings seem to
have been decorated with
frescoes
Painted on plaster walls
Landscape represented in a formal
way
Same mixture of realism and
formality in small scale sculpture
Figures are lifelike but stiff MINOAN FRESCO OF PARISIANS

14. Lacks sense of grandeur and organization
Characteristic feature of Minoan palaces
is the way they are built around a large
rectangular courtyard
Shallow sunken basins in the interior of
the buildings were light wells
Water was supplied by underground
channels
Walls were constructed of masonry
bonded and tied together by vertical and
horizontal wooden beams
This was to provide resilience against earthquake shocks
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PALACE OF
KNOSSOS

15. Freestanding wooden columns had a characteristic shape
Little is known about their town plans
No more than a limited area had been cleared at most sites
Gournia was an exception and had narrow lanes separating clusters of houses
Thera had complexes of upper-class houses with narrow, winding streets and minute
squares
No town walls or other defensive fortification

16. SITE PLAN OF MINOAN TOWN-GOURNIA

17.  Mycenaeans came from the grasslands of Southern Russia
 Flourished in the late Bronze Age, from the 1600 to 1100 BC
 Named after the site of Mycenae
 First advanced civilization in mainland Greece
 Influence extended throughout the Peloponnese in Greece and also across the
Aegean
 Minoan civilization influenced Mycenaean civilization
 Major Mycenaean centres included Mycenae,Tiryns, Pylos,Thebes, Midea, Gla,
Orchomenos, Argos, Sparta, Nichoria and probably Athens.
 They had trading relations and shared cultural features

18. Greatly influenced by Minoan art
Natural forms and flowing design along with a tendency of more schematic and less
life-like representation
Geometric designs were popular
Decorative motifs such as spirals and rosettes
Pottery similar to that of Minoan civilization with the addition of goblets and alabastron
(squat jars)
Terracotta figurines of animals and standing female figures were popular

19.  A large palace complex has been found at most of the Mycenaean centres.
 Built around a large rectangular central hall or Megaron
 Heart of the palace and contained a large circular hearth
 Throne room of the ruler
 Second, smaller hall (Queen’s Megaron), many private apartments and areas set
aside for administration, storage and manufacturing
 Fresco paintings adorned the walls
 Rooms in the palace were constructed with rubble fill
 Cross-beamed walls covered in plaster inside and limestone blocks outside
 Columns and ceilings were usually of painted wood
 Fortification wall of height 13m and thickness 8m around the palatial complex
 Corbel galleries - arched corridors, circular stone tombs, monumental doorways
 Dams for flood management, bridges

20.  Presence of foreign goods in
Mycenaean settlements proves
that the Mycenaean civilization
had trading contact with other
Aegean cultures.
 Traded goods include gold,
ivory, copper, glass, pottery
 No mercantile class
 Barter system
 Exchange of people also
existed
 Economic affluence of Syria
and Palestine, and the period
of peace in the Mediterranean assured by the kingdom of Egypt gave
impetus to navigation and trade

21.  Complex religious structure
 Importance given to animal sacrifice, communal feasting, pouring of libations and
offerings of foodstuffs
 Strong links with the Minoan religion
 Believed in a pantheon or a group of Gods
 Poseidon, Ares, Zeus, Hercules
 Specific sanctuary sites for worship close to the palace complex
 Burial was an important ritual

22. Greatly influenced by Minoan art
Natural forms and flowing design along with a tendency of more schematic and
less life-like representation
Geometric designs were popular
Decorative motifs such as spirals and rosettes
Pottery similar to that of Minoan civilization with the addition of goblets and
alabastron (squat jars)
Terracotta figurines of animals and standing female figures were popular

23. Lasted around 450 years
Old major settlements abandoned
More simple life in villages
Population dropped rapidly
Cultural growth stunted
Writing in the Linear B script ceased
LINEAR B SCRIPT

24. Adopted the alphabet used by Phoenicians and
introduced vowels as letters
First Olympics occurred in this age
Homeric epics were written
Greatly influenced Greek political attitudes during the classical period
Ended around 700 BC with the development of city-states

25. 200 year period in Greek culture lasting from 5th through 4th centuries BC.
Period between the Persian Wars at the beginning of the 5th century B.C. and the
death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.
An era of war and conflict –first between the Greeks and the Persians, then
between the Athenians and the Spartans .
But it was also an era of unprecedented political and cultural achievement .
Most enduring contribution to the modern world: system known as demokratia, or
“rule by the people”.

26.  Athens was the dominating power in the Aegean Sea during this period.
Athenian leadership successfully repelled the military threat of Persian invasion.
The Athenian Golden Age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in
the Peloponnesian war in 404 BC.
Influenced the Roman Empire and carried a version of it to many parts of the
Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason it is generally considered as to
be the Seminal Culture.
Also led the foundations of the western civilization.
Much of modern Western Culture was derived from this period of Greek history.
In the context of the art, architecture and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical
period is also called as the Hellenic period.

27.  The Persian war: Great centres in Ionia such as Miletus and Halicarnassus came
under the rule of the Persian Empire in mid 6th century BC.
 The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians from the Aegean Sea,
defeating their fleet in the Battle of Mycale.
 The Peloponnesian war: In 431 BC war broke out between Athens and Sparta and
its allies .
 It was a struggle between two leagues namely:The Delian league(Athens) and The
Peloponnesian League(Sparta).
 The Battle of Plataea was the final battle of Xerxes invasion of Greece.
 The war lasted for 27 years ,partly because of Athens and Sparta found it difficult to
come to grips with each other.

28. Architecture during Classical period
 Best known from its temples ,many of which are found
throughout the region.
The second important building that survives all over the
Hellenic period is the open-air theatre.
Many other architectural forms like propylon, agora, stoa,
bouleuterion and mausoleum are still in evidence.
Characterized by both structure and decoration.
Use of geometric formula which reflected the Golden-ratio
Divided into three defined orders:The Doric Order,The Ionic Order and the
Corinthian Order.

29. Divided into three defined orders:
The Doric Order,The Ionic Order
and the Corinthian Order.
The Doric style was used in
mainland Greece and spread from
there to the Greek colonies in Italy.
The Parthenon: Doric style

30. The Ionic style was used in the
cities of Ionia and some of the
Aegean islands.
The Corinthian order was a later
development of Ionic .
Concept of architectural beauty is
still alive through
revivals of Classicism.
The Erechtheum: Ionic style

31. Interconnected traditions of painting in ancient
Greece.
Not all painting techniques are equally well
represented in the archaeological period.
Most respected form of art, technically
described as Panel paintings were individual,
mobile paintings on wooden boards.
The tradition of wall painting in Greece goes
back to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age.
Greek stonework is described as polychrome.
Pergamon Altar:Athena against the giant Alcyoneus

32. Highly influential musical tradition.
Largely structured on the lyre and supporting string instruments.
Strong mark on the culture of Rome.
Originates from pottery and other forms of Greek art.
It was believed that dancing was invented by the Gods.
Dance was held in high regard for its educational qualities God Pan and a Maenad dancing

33. Greek language is the official language of the Hellenic
republic.
It is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and
the Cypriot syllabary.
The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.
Enormous impact on other languages like Latin language during the early days of
Rome.

34. At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer, the
Iliad and the Odyssey.
Invention of drama and masterpieces that are still reckoned as drama’s crowning
achievement.
Two historians flourished during Greece’s classical age: Herodotus and
Thucydides.
Herodotus commonly called as father of history, and his history contains the first
truly literary use of prose in Western literature.

35. Thucydides researched critical use of sources, inclusion of documents and
laborious language.
This research made his History of Peloponnesian War a significant influence on
later generations of historians.
Influence of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle on Western society.

36. To the Romans, the Greek civilization was a source of inspiration
and as Athens prospered under the Emperor Hadrian, Rome
prospered from the ideas of the ancient Athenians.
PAX ROMANA - Period of peace and security
It was the long period of peacefulness and minimal expansion by the Roman military
force experienced by the Roman empire after the of the final war of the Roman
Republic.
Its span was approximately 206 years (27 BC to 180 AD)

37. It is said to have been a miracle because prior to it there had never been peace for
so many centuries in a given period of history.
This period of peace and stability allowed the Roman Empire to achieve new
heights in technology, agriculture, science, and the arts.
Education - During the Roman period the schools of Athens flourish with the young
men of many Roman noble families coming to the city to get an education. At the
foundation of ancient Greek education was an effective system of formal education,
but in contrast, the Romans lacked such a system until the 3rd century BC. Instead,
at the foundation of ancient Roman education was, above all else, the home and
family, from which children derived their so-called "moral education.“
 The process known as SYNCRETISM gives Roman names to the Greek Gods.

38. ZEUS
ARTEMIS
HERMES
HERA
ATHENA
APOLLO
ARES
APHRODITE
POSEIDON
HADES

40. Although the colours, decoration and materials
used in the manufacture of Roman clothing
varied the tunic, the toga and the cloak.
The Palla as Roman Dress for Women
The Palla was a woven rectangle made of wool that
the Roman matron put on top of her stola when
she went outside. She could use the palla in many
ways, like a modern scarf, but palla is often
translated as cloak. A palla was like the toga,
which was another woven, not sewn, expanse of
cloth that could be pulled over the head.

41. Roman architecture continued the legacy left by
the earlier architects of the Greek world, and
the Roman respect for this tradition and their
particular reverence for the established
architectural orders, especially the Corinthian, is
evident in many of their large public buildings.
However, the Romans were also great innovators
and they quickly adopted new construction
techniques, used new materials, and uniquely
combined existing techniques with creative
design to produce a whole range of new
architectural structures such as the
basilica, triumphal arch, monumental aqueduct,
amphitheatre, granary building, and residential
housing block.

43. Smart agriculture practices and an
extensive grain trade network enabled
the romans o thrive in the water limited
environment of the Mediterranean. But
the stable food supply brought about by
these measures promoted population
growth and urbanisation, pushing the
empire closer to the limits of its food
resource.
The three main Roman ports involved
with eastern trade were Arsinoe,
Berenice and Myos Hormos. Arsinoe
was one of the early trading centers but
was soon overshadowed by the more
easily accessible Myos Hormos and
Berenice.

44. Instead of focusing on protecting their borders, Roman armies began fighting
against one another. As a result, many outside invaders were able to entre Rome,
and cause great destruction.
ECONOMIC DECAY –
 Barbarian disruption of trade
 No plunder
 Drain of gold and silver
 Inflation caused by over coinage

45. 330 – 1453 AD
Pax Romana was endangered
Christianity had been recognized as a religion in
the empire
305AD - Constantine became the emperor of
Rome
324AD – Capital was transferred from Rome to
Byzantium
364AD – Roman empire split

46. Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage
of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials.
It is a technique of decorative art or interior decoration.
Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square,
pieces of stone or glass of different colors, known
as tesserae; but some, especially floor mosaics, may also
be made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called
"pebble mosaics".

47. Characterized especially by massive domes
with square bases and rounded arches and
spires and extensive use of glass mosaics.
Early byzantine architecture was built as a
continuation of Roman architecture
Stylistic drift, technological advancement, and
political and territorial changes meant that a
distinct style gradually emerged which imbued
certain influence from the near east and used
the Greek cross plan in church architecture.
Greek cross plan in church architecture – A
cross with four equal arms at right angles

48. Buildings increased in geometric complexity, brick and plaster were used in
addition to stone in the decoration of important public structure, classical orders
were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested
upon massive piers, and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to
softly illuminate interiors.

49. Use of centrals square plans. On
square divisions to accommodate
domes for roofing system is the
measure characteristic feature.
Square plan of the eastern churches
were termed as ‘Greek Cross Plans’

51. Emperor held all powers
Viewed As divinely ordained Ruler
The Byzantine Empire had a complex system of aristocracy and bureaucracy, which was
inherited from the Roman Empire. At the apex of the hierarchy stood the emperor, who
was the sole ruler and who was considered to be divinely ordained. Beneath him, a
multitude of officials and court functionaries operated the complex administrative
machinery that was necessary to run the empire. In addition to those officials, a large
number of honorific titles existed, which the emperor awarded to his subjects or to
friendly foreign rulers.
Over the more than thousand years of the empire's existence, different titles were
adopted and discarded, and many lost or gained prestige. At first the various titles of
the empire were the same as those in the late Roman Empire. However, by the time
that Heraclius was emperor (610–641), many of the titles had become obsolete. By the
time of Alexios I reign (1082–1118), many of the positions were either new or drastically
changed. However, from that time on they remained essentially the same until the fall of
the Byzantine Empire in 1453.

52. The Greek war of independence (1821-1830) was motivated by the desire for self-
determination, free thought, education, and joining the civilized nations of Europe.
The movement was an organized effort, with certain objectives
Western influences are largely responsible, but also Greek intellectual activity.

53. The Sultan retaliated with mindless slaughter of civilian populations in defenseless
islands (Chios, Psara), which captured Western Imagination
The Great Powers of the time, although instinctively against revolts, changed their
policy and become sympathetic to the Greek Cause.

54. Egyptian Intervention (with a strong navy), nearly
extinguished the revolution.
However, pro-Hellenic sentiment had grown
stronger in western Europe, and Byron’s death in
the city functions as a strong propaganda in favor
of the revolutionaries

55. The Sultan was forced to acknowledge the creation of a small Greek State.
King Othon, a German prince, brings with him a Bavarian ensemble, which plays an
important role in the organization of the new state according to Western models.
1834:The Bavarians move the capital to Athens.

56. Greece under Othon remained a little
disturbed, but quickly established itself
as the center of Hellenism. Much of the
literature still comes from the Ionian
Islands.
For the next 50 years, Greece will
re-established the bonds with its past.

57.  1862: Othon was forced to leave. He was succeeded by George I (until 1913).
 In this period Greece became a center for literature and arts, and becomes
prosperous by the end of the century.

58. The Balkan nations revolt and drive the Turks out of Europe.
The Greeks take advantage and acquire Macedonia and Thrace.
The size of the country doubles, more or less to its present
borders.
WW1: Greece fights side by side with victorious allies.
But it gains nothing, and loses a lot.
Catastrophe in Asia Minor.
Myrivilis: Life in the Tomb.

59. Athens in the 1930’s caught up with world depression.
The wounds of the Catastrophe in Asia Minor and the world
economic crisis created a depressed mood.
The suicide of Karyotakis.
1940 Italian Invasion of Greece is resisted successfully.
1941: Hitler comes to the aid of Mussolini, and the
Germans occupy Greece until 1944.
Greece remains firmly pro-Western.

60. As the invading forces left, the Greeks are
divided between those who seek to remain
in the west, and those who want to join the
Eastern Block.
British/American intervention ensured that
Greece will remain Western.

61. The Turkish army invaded Cyprus in 1974, and effectively (but illegally) divided
the island.
The Greeks still consider the US largely responsible for the tragedy of Cyprus.

62. Two main parties and many smaller
ones.
The socialist party has dominated Greek
politics since 1981.
Liberalization.
Egalitarianism

63. 1960:Treaty of Rome creates Common Market
1973: EEC
1992:Treaty of Maastricht creates the European
Union (EU)
2002: Monetary Union in 12 countries (EURO)

64. The main aspect which affected culture a lot was The Great Greek
Economic Crisis.
The lifestyle, migration rate, buying capacity, per capita income were
totally changed.
2004 Olympics, poor political leadership, over smart opposition party
were the prominent reasons of crisis.

65. Due to economic crisis, the people started migrating vigorously which created a
problem.

66. The Olympic games are an indivisible part of Greek culture.
The 2004 Olympic was held in Athens.
This Olympic has a big effect on Greek culture, economy, politics.

67. The theatres in Greece play an important role in
the culture and thought process of citizens.

68. A leader emerged in the city to reach cultural and military heights and his name
was Pericles. He was credited with rebuilding a powerful army and greatest
monuments of all times..

69. Early settlements-This temple of Athena Polias was built upon
the Doerpfeld foundations,[16] between the Erechtheion and the still-standing
Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC.
However, the temple was probably reconstructed since in 454 BC the treasury of
the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos.The temple may have been
burnt down in 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was
set on fire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD Description of
Greece

70. HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIOD
 During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of
the Acropolis were repaired., due to damage from age, and occasionally,
war.[Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of
Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in
front of the Propylaia.These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to
Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively. Eumenes was also
responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in
the Agora below.
 During the Julio-Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round
edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient
construction on the summit of the rock. Around the same time, on the North slope, in a
cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was
founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on taking office. In 161 AD, on the South
slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was
destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed in the 1950s.
 During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the
Acropolis walls, and the "Beulé Gate" was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the
Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress

71. In the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was turned into a church, dedicated to
the Virgin Mary. Under the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the
city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaia as
part of the DucalPalace.[ A large tower was added, the "Frankopyrgos", demolished
in the 19th century. After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used
as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheumwas turned
into the Governor's private Harem.The buildings of the Acropolis suffered
significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War.The
Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit
by artillery fire and severely damaged

72.  The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea.To
the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the
Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East
of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum.
South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains
of an outdoor theatre called Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there
is the now partially reconstructed Theatre of Herodes Atticus.[44]
 All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which
resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon